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Hinreichend kalte und dichte Quarkmaterie ist ein Farbsupraleiter. Ähnlich wie Elektronen in einem gewöhnlichen Supraleiter bilden Quarks Cooper-Paare. Während bei Elektronen der Austausch von Phononen zu einer Anziehung führt, ist im Falle von Quarks der Antitriplett-Kanal der starken Wechselwirkung attraktiv. Arbeiten in den letzten Jahren haben verschiedene Phasen von farbsupraleitender Quarkmaterie untersucht und sich dabei vor allem auf Phasen konzentriert, m denen der Gesamtspin eines Cooper-Paares verschwindet. In der vorliegenden Dissertation habe ich hauptsächlich Farbsupraleiter diskutiert, deren Cooper-Paare im Spin-Triplett-Kanal kondensieren, d.h. die Cooper-Paare haben den Gesamtspin 1. Diese Art von Supraleiter ist möglicherweise relevant für Systeme in der Natur, wie z.B. das Innere von Neutronensternen. Denn bei der Spin-0-Farbsupraleitung wird vorausgesetzt, dass die Fermi-Impulse zweier Quark-Flavor gleich ist oder zumindest hinreichend klein, was für realistische Systeme, also für nicht zu große Dichten, fragwürdig ist. Diese Einschränkung gibt es im Falle von Spin-1-Farbsupraleitern nicht, da hier Quarks des gleichen Flavors Cooper-Paare bilden. Ich habe in meiner Dissertation die verschiedenen möglichen Phasen eines Spin-1-Farbsupraleiters systematisch klassifiziert. Dies wurde mit Hilfe von gruppen-theoretischen Methoden durchgeführt, basierend auf der Tatsache, dass die Farbsupraleitung durch das theoretische Konzept der spontanen Symmetriebrechung beschrieben werden kann. Ähnlich wie bei supraflüssigem Helium-3 gibt es eine Vielzahl theoretisch möglicher Phasen. Ich habe die physikalischen Eigenschaften von vier dieser Phasen untersucht, nämlich der polaren und planaren Phasen sowie der A- und CSL-(color-spin-locked)Phasen. Mit Hilfe der QCD-Lückengleichung wurde die Energielücke sowie die kritische Temperatur bestimmt. Es stellt sich heraus, dass die Energielücke eines Spin-1-Farbsupraleiters um 2-3 Größenordnungen kleiner ist als die eines Spin-0-Farbsupraleiters, d.h. sie liegt im Bereich von 10 - 100 keV. Zwei besondere Eigenschaften der Energielücke werden diskutiert, nämlich eine 2-Lücken-Struktur, die in zwei der untersuchten Fälle auftritt, sowie mögliche Anisotropien, insbesondere Nullstellen der Lückenfunktion. Die Berechnung der kritischen Temperatur zeigt, dass es durchaus farbsupraleitende Materie in einer Spin-1-Phase im Innern von Neutronensternen geben kann, da die Temperatur von alten Neutronensternen im Bereich von einigen keV oder sogar darunter liegt. Darüber hinaus wurde die Frage untersucht, ob ein Farbsupraleiter auch ein gewöhnlicher Supraleiter ist. In diesem Zusammenhang ist die Frage von Interesse, ob ein Spin-1-Farbsupraleiter gewöhnliche Magnetfelder aus seinem Innern verdrängt, was sicherlich Auswirkungen auf die Observablen eines Neutronensterns hätte. Tatsächlich stellt sich heraus, dass ein Spin-1-Farbsupraleiter, im Gegensatz zu einem Spin-0-Farbsupraleiter, einen elektronmagnetischen Meissner-Effekt aufweist. Dieses Ergebnis wurde mit Hilfe von gruppentheoretischen Überlegungen vorausgesagt und mit Hilfe einer detaillierten Berechnung der Photon-Meissner-Massen bestätigt.
This work is dedicated to the investigation of nuclear matter at non-zero temperatures within an effective hadronic model based on the Walecka model. It includes fermions as well as a vector omega meson and a scalar sigma meson where for the latter a quartic self-interaction has been considered. The coupling constants have been adapted to the saturation properties of infinite nuclear matter. A set of self-consistent Schwinger-Dyson equations has been set up for all included particles within the Cornwall-Jackiw-Tomboulis formalism. This has been expanded to non-zero temperatures via the imaginary time formalism. Beside tree-level two different stages of approximations have been considered: the Hartree approximation which takes into account the double-bubble diagram for the scalar meson, and an improved approximation where in addition two-particle irreducible sunset diagrams for all fields were included. In the Hartree-approximation the Schwinger-Dyson equations can be solved by quasi-particle ansaetze, while in the improved approximation spectral functions with non-zero widths have to be introduced. The Schwinger-Dyson equations are solved by the fully dressed propagators. Comparing the two levels of approximation shows the influence of finite widths on the temperature dependence of the particle properties. The consideration of finite widths in fact has a significant influence on the transition from a phase of heavy nucleons to a transition of light nucleons, observed in the Walecka-model. The temperature dependence is weakend when finte widths are taken into account.
The bulk viscosity of several quark matter phases is calculated. It is found that the effect of color superconductivity is not trivial, it may suppress, or enhance the bulk viscosity depending on the critical temperature and the temperature at which the bulk viscosity is calculated. Also, is it found that the effect of neutrino-emitting Urca processes cannot be neglected in the consideration of the bulk viscosity of strange quark matter. The results for the bulk viscosity of strange quark matter are used to calculate the r-mode instability window of quark stars with several possible phases. It is shown that each possible phase has a different structure for the r-mode instability window.
In this thesis, I study the phase diagram of dense, locally neutral three-flavor quark matter as a function of the strange quark mass, the quark chemical potential, and the temperature, employing a general nine-parameter ansatz for the gap matrix. At zero temperature and small values of the strange quark mass, the ground state of quark matter corresponds to the color–flavor-locked (CFL) phase. At some critical value of the strange quark mass, this is replaced by the recently proposed gapless CFL (gCFL) phase. I also find several other phases, for instance, a metallic CFL (mCFL) phase, a so-called uSC phase where all colors of up quarks are paired, as well as the standard two-flavor color-superconducting (2SC) phase and the gapless 2SC (g2SC) phase. I also study the phase diagram of dense, locally neutral three-flavor quark matter within the framework of a Nambu–Jona-Lasinio (NJL) model. In the analysis, dynamically generated quark masses are taken into account self-consistently. The phase diagram in the plane of temperature and quark chemical potential is presented. The results for two qualitatively different regimes, intermediate and strong diquark coupling strength, are presented. It is shown that the role of gapless phases diminishes with increasing diquark coupling strength. In addition, I study the effect of neutrino trapping on the phase diagram of dense, locally neutral three-flavor quark matter within the same NJL model. The phase diagrams in the plane of temperature and quark chemical potential, as well as in the plane of temperature and leptonnumber chemical potential are presented. I show that neutrino trapping favors two-flavor color superconductivity and disfavors the color–flavor-locked phase at intermediate densities of matter. At the same time, the location of the critical line separating the two-flavor color-superconducting phase and the normal phase of quark matter is little affected by the presence of neutrinos. The implications of these results for the evolution of protoneutron stars are briefly discussed.
Chapter 1 contains the general background of our work. We briefly discuss important aspects of quantum chromodynamics (QCD) and introduce the concept of the chiral condensate as an order parameter for the chiral phase transition. Our focus is on the concept of universality and the arguments why the O(4) model should fall into the same universality class as the effective Lagrangian for the order parameter of (massless) two-flavor QCD. Chapter 2 pedagogically explains the CJT formalism and is concerned with the WKB method. In chapter 3 the CJT formalism is then applied to a simple Z(2) symmetric toy model featuring a one-minimum classical potential. As for all other models we are concerned with in this thesis, we study the behavior at nonzero temperature. This is done in 1+3 dimensions as well as in 1+0 dimensions. In the latter case we are able to compare the effective potential at its global minimum (which is minus the pressure) with our result from the WKB approximation. In chapter 4 this program is also carried out for the toy model with a double-well classical potential, which allows for spontaneous symmetry breaking and tunneling. Our major interest however is in the O(2) model with the fields treated as polar coordinates. This model can be regarded as the first step towards the O(4) model in four-dimensional polar coordinates. Although in principle independent, all subjects discussed in this thesis are directly related to questions arising from the investigation of this particular model. In chapter 5 we start from the generating functional in cartesian coordinates and carry out the transition to polar coordinates. Then we are concerned with the question under which circumstances it is allowed to use the same Feynman rules in polar coordinates as in cartesian coordinates. This question turns out to be non-trivial. On the basis of the common Feynman rules we apply the CJT formalism in chapter 6 to the polar O(2) model. The case of 1+0 dimensions was intended to be a toy model on the basis of which one could more easily explore the transition to polar coordinates. However, it turns out that we are faced with an additional complication in this case, the infrared divergence of thermal integrals. This problem requires special attention and motivates the explicit study of a massless field under topological constraints in chapter 8. In chapter 7 we investigate the cartesian O(2) model in 1+0 dimensions. We compare the effective potential at its global minimum calculated in the CJT formalism and via the WKB approximation. Appendix B reviews the derivation of standard thermal integrals in 1+0 and 1+3 dimensions and constitutes the basis for our CJT calculations and the discussion of infrared divergences. In chapter 9 we discuss the so-called path integral collapse and propose a solution of this problem. In chapter 10 we present our conclusions and an outlook. Since we were interested in organizing our work as pedagogical as possible within the narrow scope of a diploma thesis, we decided to make extensive use of appendices. Appendices A-H are intended for students who are not familiar with several important concepts we are concerned with. We will refer to them explicitly to establish the connection between our work and the general context in which it is settled.
After a brief introduction on QCD and effective models in the first chapter, I analyze the dependence of the QCD transition temperature on the quark (or pion) mass in the second chapter. I found that a linear sigma model, which links the transition to chiral symmetry restoration, predicts a much stronger dependence of T_c on m_pi than seen in present lattice data for m_pi >~ 0.4 GeV. On the other hand, an effective Lagrangian for the Polyakov loop requires only small explicit symmetry breaking to describe T_c(m_pi) in the above mass range. In the third and fourth chapter, I study the linear sigma model with O(N) symmetry at nonzero temperature in the framework of the Cornwall-Jackiw-Tomboulis formalism. Extending the set of two-particle irreducible diagrams by adding sunset diagrams to the usual Hartree-Fock (or Hartree) contributions, I derive a new approximation scheme which extends the standard Hartree-Fock (or Hartree) approximation by the inclusion of nonzero decay widths.
This thesis deals with the simulation, optimization and realization of quasi-optical scanning systems for active THz cameras. Active THz cameras are sensitive in the THz regime of the electromagnetic spectrum and are suitable for the detection of metal objects such as weapons behind clothing or fabrics (maybe for security applications) or material investigation. An advantage of active THz-systems is the possibility to measure the phase of the THz-radiation and thus to reconstruct the surface topography of the objects under test. Due to the coherent illumination and the required system parameters (like image field size, working distance and lateral resolution) the optical systems (in the THz region often called quasi-optical systems) must be optimized. Specifically, the active illumination systems require highly optimized quasioptical systems to achieve a good image quality. Since currently no suitable multi-pixel detectors are available, the object has to be scanned in one or two dimensions in order to cover a full field of view. This further reinforces the occurring aberrations. The dissertation covers, alongside the underlying theory, the simulation, optimisation and realisation of three different active THz systems. The subdivision of the chapters is as follows: Chapter 1 deals with a motivation. Chapter 2 develops the underlying theory and it is demonstrated that the geometrical optics is an adequate and powerful description of the image field optimization. It also addresses the developed analytic on-axis and the off-axis image field optimization routine. Chapter 3, 4 and 5 are about the basis of various active THz cameras, each presented a major system aspect. Chapter 3 shows how active THz-cameras with very high system dynamics range can be realised. Within this chapter it could although be demonstrated how very high depth resolution can be achieved due to the coherent and active illumination and how high refresh rate can be implemented. Chapter 4 shows how absolute distance data of the objects under test can be obtained. Therefore it is possible to reconstruct the entire object topography up to a fraction of the wavelength. Chapter 5 shows how off-axis quasi-optical systems must be optimized. It is also shown how the illumination geometry of the active THz systems must be changed to allow for real-time frame rates. The developed widened multi-directional lighting approach also fixes the still existing problem of phase ambiguity of the single phase measurement. Within this chapter, the world’s first active real-time camera with very high frame rates around 10 Hz is presented. This could be only realized with the highly optimised quasioptical system and the multi-directional lighting approach. The paper concludes with a summary and an outlook for future work. Within the outlook some results regarding the simulation of synthetic aperture radar systems and metamaterials are shown.
Ein zentraler Bestandteil der Teilchenphysik ist die Berechnung der Zerfallsbreiten bzw. Lebensdauern von Teilchen. Die meisten bekannten Teilchen sind instabil und zerfallen in zwei oder mehr leichtere Teilchen. Die Formel für die Berechnung einer Zerfallsbreite enthält zwei verschiedene Komponenten: Die kinematischen Faktoren, die lediglich vom Anfangs- und Endzustand abhängen und aus der Energie- und Impulserhaltung folgen, und die dynamischen Faktoren, die sich aus der Art der Wechselwirkung und eventuellen Zwischenstufen ergeben. Gibt es mehrere Zerfallskanäle, die zu den gleichen Endzuständen führen, so unterscheiden diese sich nur in den dynamischen Faktoren. Aus diesem Grunde werden kinematische und dynamische Faktoren getrennt, da nur letztere für die Analyse der Wechselwirkung relevant sind.
Die kinematischen Faktoren von Zwei- und Dreikörperzerfällen haben einen fundamentalen Unterschied: Beim Zweikörperzerfall ist durch die Erhaltungssätze die Verteilung der Energien der Produktteilchen komplett festgelegt, während sie bei einem Dreikörperzerfall innerhalb bestimmter Grenzen variieren kann.
Ein Dreikörperzerfall kann auf zwei verschiedeneWeisen auftreten: Bei einem direkten Zerfall entstehen gleichzeitig alle drei Endprodukte. Bei einem indirekten Zerfall zerfällt das Startteilchen zuerst in zwei Teilchen, von denen eines stabil ist und das andere erneut zerfällt. Im Falle des indirekten Zerfalls haben die resultierenden Teilchen eine andere Impulsverteilung als bei einem direkten Zerfall, woraus sich Informationen über den Zwischenzustand gewinnen lassen.
Im ersten Kapitel dieser Arbeit widmen wir uns der expliziten Berechnung der Zerfallsbreite für die verschiedenen Fälle. Wir beschränken uns hier und in allen weiteren Rechnungen auf skalare und pseudoskalare Teilchen, bei denen keine Spineffekte auftreten.
Die Zerfallsbreite eines Dreikörperzerfalls lässt sich in einer besonders praktischen Form, dem sogenannten Dalitz-Plot, darstellen. Hierbei sind alle kinematischen Faktoren konstant und eine Darstellung der Zerfallsbreite in Abhängigkeit der entsprechenden Variablen lässt direkten Aufschluss über die Art der Wechselwirkung zu. Die Form eines Dalitz-Plots sowie dessen Interpretation ist Gegenstand des zweiten Kapitels.
Im dritten Kapitel beschäftigen wir uns kurz mit der Frage, welche Auswirkungen Prozesse höherer Ordnung auf den gesamten Zerfall haben. Hierbei beschränken wir uns auf die Betrachtung von Loopbeiträgen des Zwischenzustandes eines indirekten Zerfalls.
Im letzten Kapitel werden wir die theoretischen Betrachtungen am Zerfall eines pseudoskalaren Glueballs anwenden. Ein Glueball ist ein gebundener Zustand aus Gluonen, den Austauschteilchen der starken Wechselwirkung. Da die Gluonen aufgrund der nichtabelschen Struktur der Farbsymmetriegruppe selbst Farbladung tragen, ist es theoretisch möglich, Zustände nur aus Gluonen zu konstruieren, die farbneutral sind und damit den Regeln des Confinements entsprechen. Im Falle der betrachteten Glueballs tritt ein weiterer interessanter Effekt auf: Da es mehrere Zerfallskanäle gibt, die zum gleichen Endzustand führen, treten Interferenzeffekte auf, deren Auswirkung auf das Gesamtergebnis näher untersucht wird.
In this thesis I use effective models to investigate the properties of QCD-like theories at nonzero temperature and baryon chemical potential. First I construct a PNJL model using a lattice spin model with nearestneighbor interactions for the gauge sector and four-fermion interactions for the quarks in (pseudo)real representations of the gauge group. Calculating the phase diagram in the plane of temperature and quark chemical potential in QCD with adjoint quarks, it is qualitatively confirmed that the critical temperature of the chiral phase transition is much higher than the deconfinement transition temperature. At a chemical potential equal to half of the diquark mass in the vacuum, a diquark Bose–Einstein condensation (BEC) phase transition occurs. In the two-color case, a Ginzburg–Landau expansion is used to study the tetracritical behavior around the intersection point of the deconfinement and BEC transition lines which are both of second order. A compact expression for the expectation value of the Polyakov loop in an arbitrary representation of the gauge group is obtained for any number of colors, which allows us to study Casimir scaling at both nonzero temperature and chemical potential. Subsequently I study the thermodynamics of two-color QCD (QC2D) at high temperature and/or density using ZQCD, a dimensionally reduced superrenormalizable effective theory, formulated in terms of a coarse grained Wilson line. In the absence of quarks, the theory is required to respect the Z2 center symmetry, while the effects of quarks of arbitrary masses and chemical potentials are introduced via soft Z2 breaking operators. Perturbative matching of the effective theory parameters to the full theory is carried out explicitly, and it is argued how the new theory can be used to explore the phase diagram of two-color QCD.
In this thesis we explore the characteristics of strongly interacting matter, described by Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD). In particular, we investigate the properties of QCD at extreme densities, a region yet to be explored by first principle methods. We base the study on lattice gauge theory with Wilson fermions in the strong coupling, heavy quark regime. We expand the lattice action around this limit, and carry out analytic integrals over the gauge links to obtain an effective, dimensionally reduced, theory of Polyakov loop interactions.
The 3D effective theory suffers only from a mild sign problem, and we briefly outline how it can be simulated using either Monte Carlo techniques with reweighting, or the Complex Langevin flow. We then continue to the main topic of the thesis, namely the analytic treatment of the effective theory. We introduce the linked cluster expansion, a method ideal for studying thermodynamic expansions. The complex nature of the effective theory action requires the development of a generalisation of the linked cluster expansion. We find a mapping between generalised linked cluster expansion and our effective theory, and use this to compute the thermodynamic quantities.
Lastly, various resummation techniques are explored, and a chain resummation is implemented on the level of the effective theory itself. The resummed effective theory describes not only nearest neighbour, next to nearest neighbour, and so on, interactions, but couplings at all distances, making it well suited for describing macroscopic effects. We compute the equation of state for cold and dense heavy QCD, and find a correspondence with that of non-relativistic free fermions, indicating a shift of the dynamics in the continuum.
We conclude this thesis by presenting two possible extensions to new physics using the techniques outlined within. First is the application of the effective theory in the large-$N_c$ limit, of particular interest to the study of conformal field theory. Second is the computation of analytic Yang Lee zeros, which can be applied in the search for real phase transitions.