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Die Erhaltung des Muskeltonus, der die Grundlage für die aufrechte Körperstellung und die Feinabstimmung von Bewegungsabläufen bildet, erfordert ein Gleichgewicht der inhibitorischen und exzitatorischen Impulse, die in den neuronalen Regelkreisen des Rückenmarks verarbeitet werden. Im Rückenmark und Stammhirn von Wirbeltieren wird die synaptische Inhibition vom Strychnin-sensitiven Glyzinrezeptor (GlyR) vermittelt. Dieser liganden-gesteuerte Ionenkanal ist ein pentamerer Proteinkomplex aus drei a- und zwei ßUntereinheiten, der durch ein peripheres Membranprotein, das Gephyrin, in der neuronalen Membran verankert ist. Für die ligandenbindende a-Untereinheit konnten eine Vielzahl von Varianten isoliert werden, die für die Bildung verschiedener GlyR-Isoformen verantwortlich sind. Mutationen, die die Gene für die GlyR-Untereinheiten betreffen, sind stets mit chronischen Bewegungsstömngen assoziiert. So sind Punktmutationen im Gen für die GlyR al-Untereinheit für die Hyperekplexie (Startle Disease) verantwortlich, eine humane Erbkrankheit, die durch ausgeprägte Schreckreaktionen und episodische Muskelsteifheit charakterisiert ist. Die spontanen Mausmutanten spastic (spa), spasmodic (spd) und oscillator (ot), die vergleichbare Bewegungsstömngen manifestieren, tragen ebenfalls Mutationen in den Genen für die GlyR-Untereinheiten. Bei der Mausmutante spa führt eine Transposoninsertion, die im Gen für die GlyR ß-Untereinheit lokalisiert ist, zu einer Störung der GlyR ßExpression. Bei den Mausmutanten spd und ot wurden, wie bei Hyperekplexiepatienten, Mutationen im Gen für die a 1-Untereinheit identifiziert. Diese Mutation führt bei der spasmodischen Maus zu veränderten Rezeptoreigenschaften und bei oscillator zum völligen Verlust der al-Untereinheit. Die Analogie der murinen und humanen Erbkrankheiten ermöglicht die Verwendung der Mausmutanten bei der Entwicklung von in vivo Tiermodellen, die zur Erforschung der molekularen Grundlagen der Glyzinrezeptorfunktion und zur Untersuchung von GlyR-Defekten des Menschen geeignet sind. Für die Entwicklung solcher Tiermodelle wurde in der vorliegenden Arbeit versucht, die hereditären Bewegungsstörungen der Mausmutanten spa, spd und ot durch therapeutischen Gentransfer zu komplementieren. Hierbei sollten die in den Mausmutanten defekten Rezeptorstmkturgene durch solche fremder Spezies ersetzt werden.
Für die genetische Rettung der spastischen Mausmutante wurden transgene Mäuse entwickelt, die die ß-Untereinheit der Ratte in ihrem Nervensystem überexprirnieren. Durch Einbringen der Transgenallele in den genetischen Hintergrund der spastischen Maus konnte deren Menge an funktionellen GlyR ß-Transkripten vergrößert werden. Hierdurch konnte eine Zunahme an funktionellen GlyR-Molekülen erreicht und die Manifestierung ihres mutanten Phänotyps verhindert werden. Dies liefe11e zum einen den formalen Beweis für den Zusammenhang von identifiziertem Gendefekt und mutantem Phänotyp und zeigte, daß GlyR-Untereinheiten über Speziesbarrieren hinweg wirksam sind. Zum anderen wurde deutlich, daß das Erscheinen der adulten GlyR-Isoform (GlyRA) an der Membranoberfläche in vivo direkt von der Verfügbarkeit funktioneller ß-Untereinheiten abhängig ist. Darüber hinaus konnte zum ersten Mal gezeigt werden, daß die normale Funktion des glyzinergen Systems bereits dann gewährleistet ist, wenn nur 25% an funktionsfähigen ß-Transkripten gebildet werden bzw. wenn nur ca. die Hälfte der im Wildtyp vorhandenen GlyRA-Moleküle die neuronale Membranoberfläche erreichen.
Zur genetischen Rettung der Mausmutanten spasmodic und oscillator wurden, in analogen Versuchsansätzen, transgene Mauslinien etabliert, die die GlyR al-Untereinheit des Menschen in ihrem Nervensystem überexprimieren. Nach Einbringen der Transgenallele in den genetischen Hintergrund der ot Maus konnte deren Phänotyp partiell komplementiert werden. Eine vollständige Rettung dieser Mausmutante bzw. eine Komplementation des spasmodischen Phänotyps konnte, vermutlich aufgrund zu niedriger Transgenexpressionsrate, nicht erreicht werden. Dennoch zeigte das Ergebnis, daß die humane al-Untereinheit in der Maus Funktion übernehmen kann, eine Grundvoraussetzung für die Entwicklung von Mausmodellen, die zur Untersuchung des Pathomechanismus mutierter GlyR-Untereinheiten des Menschen geeignet sind.
Zweites Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war die Entwicklung von transgenen Mäusen, die die rekombinante GlyR-Untereinheit "Chl" in ihrem Nervensystem exprimieren, für die in vitro gezeigt wurde, daß sie eine dominant negative Wirkung auf die GlyR-Aktivität entfaltet. Durch den Einsatz dieser Untereinheit sollte die GlyR-Aktivität in vivo gezielt reduziert werden und damit der Pathomechanismus der al-Untereinheit in Hyperekplexiepatienten, die ebenfalls als dominant negative GlyR-Untereinheit wirkt, simuliert werden. Die molekularbiologischen Analysen der etablierten Chl-transgen Linien zeigten, daß die transgene Untereinheit, anders als erwartet, die Expression der ligandenbindende al-Untereinheit beeinflußt. Diese Erkenntnis steht im Gegensatz zu den Ergebnissen aus entsprechenden Experimenten mit in vitro Systemen und macht deutlich, daß in vitro Modelle die in vivo Situation nicht unbedingt repräsentieren müssen. Dies unterstreicht die Bedeutung von Tiermodellen bei der Untersuchung der molekularen Grundlagen der glyzinergen Nervenübertragung und bei der Erforschung von humanen Glyzinrezeptordefekten.
In the mouse, most mature olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs) express one allele of one gene from the repertoire of ~1100 odorant receptor (OR) genes, which encode G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs). Axons of OSNs that express a given OR coalesce into homogeneous glomeruli, which reside at conserved positions in the olfactory bulb. ORs are intimately involved in ensuring the expression of one OR per OSN and the coalescence of OSN axons into glomeruli. But the mechanisms whereby ORs accomplish these diverse functions remain poorly understood. An experimental approach that has been informative is to substitute an OR genetically with another GPCR that is normally not expressed in OSNs, in order to determine in which aspects this GPCR can serve as surrogate OR in mouse OSNs. Thus far only the β2-adrenergic receptor (β2AR, Ardb2) has been shown to be able to serve as surrogate OR in OSNs; the β2AR could substitute for the M71 OR in all aspects examined. Can other non-olfactory GPCRs function equally well as surrogate ORs in OSNs? Here, we have generated and characterized two novel gene-targeted mouse strains in which the mouse melanocortin 4 receptor (Mc4r) or the mouse dopamine receptor D1 (Drd1a) is coexpressed with tauGFP in OSNs that express the OR locus M71. These alleles and strains are abbreviated as Mc4r→M71-GFP and Drd1a→M71-GFP. We detected strong Mc4r or Drd1a immunoreactivity in axons and dendritic knobs and cilia of OSNs that express Mc4r or Drd1a from the M71 locus. These OSNs responded physiologically to cognate agonists for Mc4r (Ro27-3225) or Drd1a (SKF81297), and not to the M71 ligand acetophenone. Axons of OSNs expressing Mc4r→M71-GFP coalesced into glomeruli. Axons of OSNs expressing Drd1a→M71-GFP converged onto restricted areas of the olfactory bulb but did not coalesce into glomeruli. Thus, OR functions in OSNs can be substituted by Mc4r or Drd1a, but not as well as by β2AR. We attribute the weak performance of Drd1a as surrogate OR to poor OSN maturation.
Gene targeting in embryonic stem (ES) cells remains best practice for introducing complex mutations into the mouse germline. One aspect in this multistep process that has not been streamlined with regard to the logistics and ethics of mouse breeding is the efficiency of germline transmission: the transmission of the ES cell-derived genome through the germline of chimeras to their offspring. A method whereby male chimeras transmit exclusively the genome of the injected ES cells to their offspring has been developed. The new technology, referred to as goGermline, entails injecting ES cells into blastocysts produced by superovulated homozygous Tsc22d3 floxed females mated with homozygous ROSA26-Cre males. This cross produces males that are sterile due to a complete cell-autonomous defect in spermatogenesis. The resulting male chimeras can be sterile but when fertile, they transmit the ES cell-derived genome to 100% of their offspring. The method was validated extensively and in two laboratories for gene-targeted ES clones that were derived from the commonly used parental ES cell lines Bruce4, E14, and JM8A3. The complete elimination of the collateral birth of undesired, non-ES cell-derived offspring in goGermline technology fulfills the reduction imperative of the 3R principle of humane experimental technique with animals. genesis 54:326-333, 2016. © 2016 The Authors. Genesis Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Extraembryonic endoderm stem (XEN) cell lines can be derived and maintained in vitro and reflect the primitive endoderm lineage. Platelet-derived growth factor receptor alpha (PDGFRA) is thought to be essential for the derivation and maintenance of mouse XEN cell lines. Here, we have re-evaluated this requirement for PDGFRA. We derived multiple PDGFRA-deficient XEN cell lines from postimplantation and preimplantation embryos of a PDGFRA-GFP knockout strain. We also converted PDGFRA-deficient embryonic stem cell lines into XEN cell lines chemically by transient culturing with retinoic acid and Activin A. We confirmed the XEN profile of our 12 PDGFRA-deficient cell lines by immunofluorescence with various markers, by NanoString gene expression analyses, and by their contribution to the extraembryonic endoderm of chimeric embryos produced by injecting these cells into blastocysts. Thus, PDGFRA is not essential for the derivation and maintenance of XEN cell lines.
Efficient derivation of extraembryonic endoderm stem cell lines from mouse postimplantation embryos
(2016)
Various types of stem cell lines have been derived from preimplantation or postimplantation mouse embryos: embryonic stem cell lines, epiblast stem cell lines, and trophoblast stem cell lines. It is not known if extraembryonic endoderm stem (XEN) cell lines can be derived from postimplantation mouse embryos. Here, we report the derivation of 77 XEN cell lines from 85 postimplantation embryos at embryonic day E5.5 or E6.5, in parallel to the derivation of 41 XEN lines from 69 preimplantation embryos at the blastocyst stage. We attain a success rate of 100% of XEN cell line derivation with our E5.5 whole-embryo and E6.5 disaggregated-embryo methods. Immunofluorescence and NanoString gene expression analyses indicate that the XEN cell lines that we derived from postimplantation embryos (post-XEN) are very similar to the XEN cell lines that we derived from preimplantation embryos (pre-XEN) using a conventional method. After injection into blastocysts, post-XEN cells contribute to extraembryonic endoderm in chimeras at E6.5 and E7.5.
Mitochondria are the "power plants" of eukaryotic cells involved cellular energy metabolism and lead the generation of most of the cellular "energy currency" adenosine triphosphate (ATP). In addition, they have other crucial functions including the control of programmed cell death, iron/sulfur cluster biogenesis and copper and calcium homeostasis. Mitochondrial dysfunction is deleterious and leads to degeneration, disease and aging. A number of individual pathways are active in keeping mitochondria functional over longer periods of time and thereby have a strong impact on lifespan. These mitochondrial quality control (mtQC) pathways occur at different molecular and cellular levels and are all limited in their capacity. They do not all work at the same time. Some of them are induced when others fail. Currently, the underlying molecular interaction of pathways and their regulation is only initially elucidated. ...
Acinetobacter baumannii is a Gram-negative pathogen that causes a multitude of nosocomial infections. The Acinetobacter trimeric autotransporter adhesin (Ata) belongs to the superfamily of trimeric autotransporter adhesins which are important virulence factors in many Gram-negative species. Phylogenetic profiling revealed that ata is present in 78% of all sequenced A. baumannii isolates but only in 2% of the closely related species A. calcoaceticus and A. pittii. Employing a markerless ata deletion mutant of A. baumannii ATCC 19606 we show that adhesion to and invasion into human endothelial and epithelial cells depend on Ata. Infection of primary human umbilical cord vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) with A. baumannii led to the secretion of interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-8 in a time- and Ata-dependent manner. Furthermore, infection of HUVECs by WT A. baumannii was associated with higher rates of apoptosis via activation of caspases-3 and caspase-7, but not necrosis, in comparison to ∆ata. Ata deletion mutants were furthermore attenuated in their ability to kill larvae of Galleria mellonella and to survive in larvae when injected at sublethal doses. This indicates that Ata is an important multifunctional virulence factor in A. baumannii that mediates adhesion and invasion, induces apoptosis and contributes to pathogenicity in vivo.
Heat stress transcription factors (Hsfs) have an essential role in heat stress response (HSR) and thermotolerance by controlling the expression of hundreds of genes including heat shock proteins (Hsps) with molecular chaperone functions. Hsf family in plants shows a striking multiplicity, with more than 20 members in many species. In Solanum lycopersicum HsfA1a was reported to act as the master regulator of the onset of HSR and therefore is essential for basal thermotolerance. Evidence for this was provided by the analysis of HsfA1a co-suppression (A1CS) transgenic plants, which exhibited hypersensitivity upon exposure to heat stress (HS) due to the inability of the plants to induce the expression of many HS-genes including HsfA2, HsfB1 and several Hsps. Completion of tomato genome sequencing allowed the completion of the Hsf inventory, which is consisted of 27 members, including another three HsfA1 genes, namely HsfA1b, HsfA1c and HsfA1e.
Consequently, the suppression effect of the short interference RNA in A1CS lin e was re-evaluated for all HsfA1 genes. We found that expression of all HsfA1 proteins was suppressed in A1CS protoplasts. This result suggested that the model of single master regulator needs to be re-examined.
Expression analysis revealed that HsfA1a is constitutively expressed in different tissues and in response to HS, while HsfA1c and HsfA1e are minimally expressed in general, and show an induction during fruit ripening and a weak upregulation in late HSR. Instead HsfA1b shows preferential expression in specific tissues and is strongly and rapidly induced in response to HS. At the protein level HsfA1b and HsfA1e are rapidly degraded while HsfA1a and HsfA1c show a higher stability. In addition, HsfA1a and HsfA1c show a nucleocytosolic distribution, while HsfA1b and HsfA1e a strong nuclear retention.
A major property of a master regulator in HSR is thought to be its ability to cause a strong transactivation of a wide range of genes required for the initial activation of protective mechanisms. GUS reporter assays as well as analysis of transcript levels of several endogenous transcripts in protoplasts transiently expressing HsfA1 proteins revealed that HsfA1a can stimulate the transcription of many genes, while the other Hsfs have weaker activity and only on limited set of target genes. The low activity of HsfA1c and HsfA1e can be attributed to the lower DNA capacity of the two factors as judged by a GUS reporter repressor assay.
HsfA1a has been shown to have synergistic activity with the stress induced HsfA2 and HsfB1. The formation of such complexes is considered as important for stimulation of transcription and long term stress adaptation. All HsfA1 members show synergistic activity with HsfA2, while only HsfA1a act as co-activator of HsfB1 and HsfA7. Interestingly, HsfA1b shows an exceptional synergistic activity with HsfA3, suggesting that different Hsf complexes might regulate different HS-related gene networks. Altogether these results suggest that HsfA1a has unique characteristics within HsfA1 subfamily. This result is interesting considering the very high sequencing similarity among HsfA1s, and particularly among HsfA1a and HsfA1c.
To understand the molecular basis of this discrepancy, a series of domain swapping mutants between HsfA1a and HsfA1c were generated. Oligomerization domain and C-terminal swaps did not affect the basal activity or co-activity of the proteins. Remarkably, an HsfA1a mutant harbouring the N-terminus of HsfA1c shows reduced activity and co-activity, while the reciprocal HsfA1c with the N-terminus of HsfA1a cause a gain of activity and enhanced DNA binding capacity.
Sequence analysis of the DBD of HsfA1 proteins revealed a divergence in the highly conserved C-terminus of the turn of β3-β4 sheet. As the vast majority of HsfA1 proteins, HsfA1a at this position comprises an Arg residue (R107), while HsfA1c a Leu and HsfA1e a Cys. An HsfA1a-R107L mutant has reduced DNA binding capacity and consequently activity. Therefore, the results presented here point to the essential function of this amino acid residue for DNA binding function. Interestingly, the mutation did not affect the activity of the protein on Hsp70-1, suggesting that the functionality of the DBD and consequently the transcription factor on different promoters with variable heat stress element number and architecture is dependent on structural peculiarities of the DBD.
In conclusion, the unique properties including expression pattern, transcriptional activities, stability, DBD-peculiarities are likely responsible for the dominant function of HsfA1a as a master regulator of HSR in tomato. Instead, other HsfA1-members are only participating in HSR or developmental regulations by regulating a specific set of genes. Furthermore, HsfA1b and HsfA1e are likely function as stress primers in specific tissues while HsfA1c as a co-regulator in mild HSR. Thereby, tomato subclass A1 presents another example of function diversity not only within the Hsf family but also within the Hsf-subfamily of closely related members. The diversification based on DBD peculiarities is likely to occur in potato as well. Therefore this might have eliminated the functional redundancy observed in other species such as Arabidopsis thaliana but has probably allowed the more refined regulation of Hsf networks possibly under different stress regimes, tissues and cell types.