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Nematodes represent a diverse and ubiquitous group of metazoans in terrestrial environments. They feed on bacteria, fungi, plants, other nematodes or parasitize a variety of animals and hence may be considered as active members of many food webs. Deadwood is a structural component of forest ecosystems which harbors many niches for diverse biota. As fungi and bacteria are among the most prominent decomposing colonizers of deadwood, we anticipated frequent and diverse nematode populations to co-occur in such ecosystems. However, knowledge about their ability to colonize this habitat is still limited. We applied DNA-based amplicon sequencing (metabarcoding) of the 18S rRNA gene to analyze nematode communities in sapwood and heartwood of decaying logs from 13 different tree species. We identified 247 nematode ASVs (amplicon sequence variants) from 27 families. Most of these identified families represent bacterial and fungal feeders. Their composition strongly depended on tree species identity in both wood compartments. While pH and water content were the only wood properties that contributed to nematodes’ distribution, co-occurring fungal and prokaryotic (bacteria and archaea) α- and β-diversities were significantly related to nematode communities. By exploring thirteen different tree species, which exhibit a broad range of wood characteristics, this study provides first and comprehensive insights into nematode diversity in deadwood of temperate forests and indicates connectivity to other wood-inhabiting organisms.
Fungi and prokaryotes are dominant colonizers of wood and mediate its decomposition. Much progress has been achieved to unravel these communities and link them to specific wood properties. However, comparative studies considering both groups of organisms and assessing their relationships to wood resources are largely missing. Bipartite interaction networks provide an opportunity to investigate this colonizer-resource relationship more in detail and aim to directly compare results between different biotic groups. The main questions were as follows. Are network structures reflecting the trophic relationship between fungal and prokaryotic colonizers and their resources? If so, do they reflect the critical role of these groups, especially that of fungi, during decomposition? We used amplicon sequencing data to analyze fungal and prokaryotic interaction networks from deadwood of 13 temperate tree species at an early to middle stage of decomposition. Several diversity- and specialization-related indices were determined and the observed network structures were related to intrinsic wood traits. We hypothesized nonrandom bipartite networks for both groups and a higher degree of specialization for fungi, as they are the key players in wood decomposition. The results reveal highly modular and specialized interaction networks for both groups of organisms, demonstrating that many fungi and prokaryotes are resource-specific colonizers. However, as the level of specialization of fungi significantly surpassed that of prokaryotes, our findings reflect the strong association between fungi and their host. Our novel approach shows that the application of bipartite interaction networks is a useful tool to explore, quantify, and compare the deadwood-colonizers relationship based on sequencing data.
IMPORTANCE Deadwood is important for our forest ecosystems. It feeds and houses many organisms, e.g., fungi and prokaryotes, with many different species contributing to its decomposition and nutrient cycling. The aim of this study was to explore and quantify the relationship between these two main wood-inhabiting organism groups and their corresponding host trees. Two independent DNA-based amplicon sequencing data sets (fungi and prokaryotes) were analyzed via bipartite interaction networks. The links in the networks represent the interactions between the deadwood colonizers and their deadwood hosts. The networks allowed us to analyze whether many colonizing species interact mostly with a restricted number of deadwood tree species, so-called specialization. Our results demonstrate that many prokaryotes and fungi are resource-specific colonizers. The direct comparison between both groups revealed significantly higher specialization values for fungi, emphasizing their strong association to respective host trees, which reflects their dominant role in exploiting this resource.
Drought and salt stress are the major constraint to increase yield in chickpea (Cicer arietinum). Improving drought and high-salinity tolerance is therefore of outmost importance for breeding. However, the complexity of these traits allowed only marginal progress. A solution to the current stagnation is expected from innovative molecular tools such as transcriptome analyses providing insight into stress-related gene activity, which combined with molecular markers and expression (e)QTL mapping, may accelerate knowledge-based breeding. SuperSAGE, an improved version of the serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE) technique, generating genome-wide, high-quality transcription profiles from any eukaryote, has been employed in the present study. The method produces 26bp long fragments (26bp tags) from defined positions in cDNAs, providing sufficient sequence information to unambiguously characterize the mRNAs. Further, SuperSAGE tags may be immediately used to produce microarrays and probes for real-time-PCR, thereby overcoming the lack of genomic tools in non-model organisms.
Background: The combination of high-throughput transcript profiling and next-generation sequencing technologies is a prerequisite for genome-wide comprehensive transcriptome analysis. Our recent innovation of deepSuperSAGE is based on an advanced SuperSAGE protocol and its combination with massively parallel pyrosequencing on Roche's 454 sequencing platform. As a demonstration of the power of this combination, we have chosen the salt stress transcriptomes of roots and nodules of the third most important legume crop chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.). While our report is more technology-oriented, it nevertheless addresses a major world-wide problem for crops generally: high salinity. Together with low temperatures and water stress, high salinity is responsible for crop losses of millions of tons of various legume (and other) crops. Continuously deteriorating environmental conditions will combine with salinity stress to further compromise crop yields. As a good example for such stress-exposed crop plants, we started to characterize salt stress responses of chickpeas on the transcriptome level. Results: We used deepSuperSAGE to detect early global transcriptome changes in salt-stressed chickpea. The salt stress responses of 86,919 transcripts representing 17,918 unique 26bp deepSuperSAGE tags (UniTags) from roots of the salt-tolerant variety INRAT-93 two hours after treatment with 25 mM NaCl were characterized. Additionally, the expression of 57,281 transcripts representing 13,115 UniTags was monitored in nodules of the same plants. From a total of 144,200 analyzed 26bp tags in roots and nodules together, 21,401 unique transcripts were identified. Of these, only 363 and 106 specific transcripts, respectively, were commonly up- or down-regulated (>3.0-fold) under salt stress in both organs, witnessing a differential organ-specific response to stress. Profiting from recent pioneer works on massive cDNA sequencing in chickpea, more than 9,400 UniTags were able to be linked to UniProt entries. Additionally, gene ontology (GO) categories over-representation analysis enabled to filter out enriched biological processes among the differentially expressed UniTags. Subsequently, the gathered information was further cross-checked with stress-related pathways. From several filtered pathways, here we focus exemplarily on transcripts associated with the generation and scavenging of reactive oxygen species (ROS), as well as on transcripts involved in Na+ homeostasis. Although both processes are already very well characterized in other plants, the information generated in the present work is of high value. Information on expression profiles and sequence similarity for several hundreds of transcripts of potential interest is now available. Conclusions: This report demonstrates, that the combination of the high-throughput transcriptome profiling technology SuperSAGE with one of the next-generation sequencing platforms allows deep insights into the first molecular reactions of a plant exposed to salinity. Cross validation with recent reports enriched the information about the salt stress dynamics of more than 9,000 chickpea ESTs, and enlarged their pool of alternative transcripts isoforms. As an example for the high resolution of the employed technology that we coin deepSuperSAGE, we demonstrate that ROS-scavenging and -generating pathways undergo strong global transcriptome changes in chickpea roots and nodules already 2 hours after onset of moderate salt stress (25mM NaCl). Additionally, a set of more than 15 candidate transcripts are proposed to be potential components of the salt overly sensitive (SOS) pathway in chickpea. Newly identified transcript isoforms are potential targets for breeding novel cultivars with high salinity tolerance. We demonstrate that these targets can be integrated into breeding schemes by micro-arrays and RT-PCR assays downstream of the generation of 26bp tags by SuperSAGE.
Background Drought is the major constraint to increase yield in chickpea (Cicer arietinum). Improving drought tolerance is therefore of outmost importance for breeding. However, the complexity of the trait allowed only marginal progress. A solution to the current stagnation is expected from innovative molecular tools such as transcriptome analyses providing insight into stress-related gene activity, which combined with molecular markers and expression (e)QTL mapping, may accelerate knowledge-based breeding. SuperSAGE, an improved version of the serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE) technique, generating genome-wide, high-quality transcription profiles from any eukaryote, has been employed in the present study. The method produces 26 bp long fragments (26 bp tags) from defined positions in cDNAs, providing sufficient sequence information to unambiguously characterize the mRNAs. Further, SuperSAGE tags may be immediately used to produce microarrays and probes for real-time-PCR, thereby overcoming the lack of genomic tools in non-model organisms. Results We applied SuperSAGE to the analysis of gene expression in chickpea roots in response to drought. To this end, we sequenced 80,238 26 bp tags representing 17,493 unique transcripts (UniTags) from drought-stressed and non-stressed control roots. A total of 7,532 (43%) UniTags were more than 2.7-fold differentially expressed, and 880 (5.0%) were regulated more than 8-fold upon stress. Their large size enabled the unambiguous annotation of 3,858 (22%) UniTags to genes or proteins in public data bases and thus to stress-response processes. We designed a microarray carrying 3,000 of these 26 bp tags. The chip data confirmed 79% of the tag-based results, whereas RT-PCR confirmed the SuperSAGE data in all cases. Conclusion This study represents the most comprehensive analysis of the drought-response transcriptome of chickpea available to date. It demonstrates that – inter alias – signal transduction, transcription regulation, osmolyte accumulation, and ROS scavenging undergo strong transcriptional remodelling in chickpea roots already 6 h after drought stress. Certain transcript isoforms characterizing these processes are potential targets for breeding for drought tolerance. We demonstrate that these can be easily accessed by micro-arrays and RT-PCR assays readily produced downstream of SuperSAGE. Our study proves that SuperSAGE owns potential for molecular breeding also in non-model crops.
Each lifecycle of the Hepatitis C virus (HCV) produces structural and non-structural (NS) proteins in equimolar. Structural proteins were either assembled or degraded by host proteolysis systems, while NS proteins remain inside the host cells and don’t accumulate. Therefore, they must be degraded. Here, NS3 and NS5A half-lives were quantified in the presence of autolysosome and proteasome different modulators. Inhibitors of both systems increased the half-life, while inducers decreased the half-life. Furthermore, polyubiquitination of NS3 and NS5A was observed. Additionally, their intracellular co-localization with autolysosome (LAMP2) and proteasome (PSMB5) was observed, and inhibitors of both systems increased the degree of co-localization. A better understanding of NS protein degradation might help to improve medical interventions during HCV infections in the future.
Each lifecycle of the Hepatitis C virus (HCV) produces structural and non-structural (NS) proteins in equimolar. Structural proteins were either assembled or degraded by host proteolysis systems, while NS proteins remain inside the host cells and don’t accumulate. Therefore, they must be degraded. Here, NS3 and NS5A half-lives were quantified in the presence of autolysosome and proteasome different modulators. Inhibitors of both systems increased the half-life, while inducers decreased the half-life. Furthermore, polyubiquitination of NS3 and NS5A was observed. Additionally, their intracellular co-localization with autolysosome (LAMP2) and proteasome (PSMB5) was observed, and inhibitors of both systems increased the degree of co-localization. A better understanding of NS protein degradation might help to improve medical interventions during HCV infections in the future.
Since its recognition as an endothelium-derived relaxing factor, the control and consequences of nitric oxide (NO) production have been investigated intensely. We know now that NO is not simply a vasodilator or regulator of smooth muscle tone but is a potent anti-platelet agent, neuromodulator and regulator of gene expression. NO is synthesized from the amino acid Larginine by a family of enzymes termed NO synthases (NOS). The ‘endothelial’ (eNOS or NOS III) and ‘neuronal’ (nNOS, NOS I or bNOS) NOS isoforms, which were named after the tissues in which they were first identified, are expressed constitutively and are generally regulated by Ca2+/calmodulin (CaM). Endothelium-derived NO is thought to be responsible for maintaining the vasculature in an anti-atherosclerotic state and a decrease in the bioavailability of NO (a state generally referred to as endothelial dysfunction) results in “proatherosclerotic” alterations in vascular gene expression. Recently it has become clear that the activity of eNOS is largely determined by its association with regulatory proteins as well as by the phosphorylation of the enzyme on serine, threonine and possibly tyrosine residues. Moreover, the enzyme can be “uncoupled” i.e. transformed from a NO generating to a superoxide (O2-)-generating enzyme, which would be expected to attenuate vasodilator responses and enhance vascular inflammation. The aim of this thesis was to study the consequences of phosphorylation on specific serine, threonine and tyrosine residues on the activity and intracellular localisation of eNOS and in particular to determine whether a phospho-switch for eNOS uncoupling exists. eNOS is phosphorylated under basal conditions and its serine phosphorylation can be enhanced following cell stimulation with hemodynamic stimuli such as cyclic stretch and fluid shear stress as well as by hormonal stimuli such as histamine and bradykinin. Our group has previously demonstrated the importance of Ser1177 in the activation of eNOS and here I set out to determine the relative importance of phosphorylation on Ser633 and Ser114. By generating point mutants in which serine was replaced by either alanine (nonphosphorylatable mutants) or aspartate (phosphomimetic mutants) it was observed that the activity of the S633D and S114A eNOS mutants exhibited an 2-fold increase over the activity of the wild-type enzyme or either of the S633/634A or S114D eNOS mutants as determined by monitoring the conversion of L-arginine to L-citrulline. eNOS is basally phosphorylated on Thr495 and stimulation of endothelial cells with Ca2+-elevating agonists generally results in the transient dephosphorylation of this residue. The latter is essential to allow the binding of calmodulin to the enzyme and is the actually initiating step in the generation of NO. Correspondingly, the T495A eNOS mutant can be activated at lower Ca2+ and calmodulin concentrations than the T495D mutant. However, some eNOS mutants (T494A/S1177D and T495A) showed an enhanced ability to generate O2- in a NOS inhibitor-sensitive manner suggesting that the phosphorylation of the enzyme may also play a role in the uncoupling process. To determine the physiological relevance of eNOS dephosphorylation on Thr495 we assessed the consequences of treating cells with oxidised low-density lipoprotein (ox-LDL) on eNOS phosphorylation as well as on the eNOS-dependent generation of NO and O2-. Oxidised LDL concentration- and time-dependently decreased phosphorylation of eNOS on Thr495 and led to a concomitant decrease in cellular levels of cyclic GMP and an enhanced production of O2 - compared to cells treated with native LDL. Alterations in the activity of protein kinase C (PKC) were related to the change in eNOS Thr495 phosphorylation. There was not only the basal activity of PKCα inhibited by ox-LDL but the PKC activator phorbol-12-myristate-13-acetate also failed to elicit the phosphorylation of Thr495 in ox-LDL-treated endothelial cells. The dephosphorylation of eNOS on Thr495 in response to the addition of ox-LDL was not associated with an increase in the binding of calmodulin to eNOS, an association usually necessary for the activation of eNOS. Moreover, following treatment with ox-LDL for 24 hours eNOS was no longer detected at the plasma membrane but was redistributed to the cytosol indicating that ox-LDL may disrupt the eNOS signalling complex or signalosome. To date the role played by the tyrosine phosphorylation of eNOS in the regulation of its activity or intracellular association is controversial. However, during the preparation of this thesis we have been able to demonstrate a link between the tyrosine phosphorylation of eNO and the activation of the tyrosine kinases Src and PYK2. The application of fluid shear stress to endothelial cells resulted in the activation of Src and PYK2 as well as in the association of PYK2 with eNOS. Co-expression of eNOS and PYK2 led to the putative identification of Tyr657 as a potential modulatory site. Mutating eNOS at Tyr657 to Asp or Glu resulted in the localisation of the mutant eNOS predominantly in the cytoskeleton and also in a complete inactivation of the enzyme. The Y657F mutants, on the other hand, did not demonstrate any marked alteration in the activity when compared with the wild-type eNOS. However, the In conclusion, the results describe in this thesis indicate that eNOS is regulated by phosphorylation at multiple sites. Depending on the phosphorylation site involved phosphorylation can inhibit or activate NO production or even uncouple the enzyme so that it generates O2-. While the phosphor-status of eNOS on Ser114 and Ser633 influenced NO release they did not contribute to O2 - production and the dephosphorylation of Thr495 seems sufficient to uncouple eNOS. Cell treatment with ox-LDL, which is known to increase eNOS-derived O2- output was correlated with a dephosphorylation of Thr495 as well as a decrease in the activity of the kinase that phosphorylates this site i.e., PKCα. The phosphorylation status of all the eNOS serine and threonine residues studied however did not influence the ability of the enzyme to dimerise, indicating that contrary to previously published reports the eNOS dimer is highly stable in endothelial cells. The tyrosine phosphorylation of eNOS was not initially expected to play a determinant role in the regulation but rather to facilitate the docking of associated regulatory proteins. However, Tyr657 seems to play a critical role in the generation of NO as its mutation resulted in the generation of a completely inactive enzyme as well as in an apparent intracellular mislocalisation of the protein. The physiological relevance of these findings remain to be further elucidated.
Aim: The identification of the mechanisms determining spatial variation in biological diversity along elevational gradients is a central objective in ecology and biogeography. Here, we disentangle the direct and indirect effects of abiotic drivers (climatic conditions, and land use) and biotic drivers (vegetation structure and food resources) on functional diversity and composition of bird and bat assemblages along a tropical elevational gradient. Location: Southern slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro, Tanzania, East Africa. Methods: We counted birds and recorded bat sonotypes on 58 plots distributed in near-natural and anthropogenically modified habitats from 700 to 4,600 m above sea level. For the recorded taxa, we compiled functional traits related to movement, foraging and body size from museum specimens and databases. Further, we recorded mean annual temperature, precipitation, vegetation complexity as well as the number of fruits, flowers, and insect biomass as measures of resource availability on each study site. Results: Using path analyses, we found similar responses of bird and bat functional diversity to the variation in abiotic and biotic drivers along the elevational gradient. In contrast, the functional composition of both taxa showed distinct responses to abiotic and biotic drivers. For both groups, direct temperature effects were most important, followed by resource availability, precipitation and vegetation complexity. Main Conclusions: Our findings indicate that physiological and metabolic constraints imposed by temperature and resource availability determine the functional diversity of bird and bat assemblages, whereas the composition of individual functional traits is driven by taxon-specific processes. Our study illustrates that distinct filtering mechanisms can result in similar patterns of functional diversity along broad environmental gradients. Such differences need to be taken into account when it comes to conserving the functional diversity of flying vertebrates on tropical mountains.
Ribosome biogenesis is well described in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. In contrast only very little information is available on this pathway in plants. This study presents the characterization of five putative protein co-factors of ribosome biogenesis in Arabidopsis thaliana, namely Rrp5, Pwp2, Nob1, Enp1 and Noc4. The characterization of the proteins in respect to localization, enzymatic activity and association with pre-ribosomal complexes is shown. Additionally, analyses of T-DNA insertion mutants aimed to reveal an involvement of the plant co-factors in ribosome biogenesis. The investigated proteins localize mainly to the nucleolus or the nucleus, and atEnp1 and atNob1 co-migrate with 40S pre-ribosomal complexes. The analysis of T-DNA insertion lines revealed that all proteins are essential in Arabidopsis thaliana and mutant plants show alterations of rRNA intermediate abundance already in the heterozygous state. The most significant alteration was observed in the NOB1 T-DNA insertion line where the P-A3 fragment, a 23S-like rRNA precursor, accumulated. The transmission of the T-DNA through the male and female gametophyte was strongly inhibited indicating a high importance of ribosome co-factor genes in the haploid stages of plant development. Additionally impaired embryogenesis was observed in some mutant plant lines. All results support an involvement of the analyzed proteins in ribosome biogenesis but differences in rRNA processing, gametophyte and embryo development suggested an alternative regulation in plants.