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Shape complementarity is a compulsory condition for molecular recognition. In our 3D ligand-based virtual screening approach called SQUIRREL, we combine shape-based rigid body alignment with fuzzy pharmacophore scoring. Retrospective validation studies demonstrate the superiority of methods which combine both shape and pharmacophore information on the family of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs). We demonstrate the real-life applicability of SQUIRREL by a prospective virtual screening study, where a potent PPARalpha agonist with an EC50 of 44 nM and 100-fold selectivity against PPARgamma has been identified...
The representation of small molecules as molecular graphs is a common technique in various fields of cheminformatics. This approach employs abstract descriptions of topology and properties for rapid analyses and comparison. Receptor-based methods in contrast mostly depend on more complex representations impeding simplified analysis and limiting the possibilities of property assignment. In this study we demonstrate that ligand-based methods can be applied to receptor-derived binding site analysis. We introduce the new method PocketGraph that translates representations of binding site volumes into linear graphs and enables the application of graph-based methods to the world of protein pockets. The method uses the PocketPicker algorithm for characterization of binding site volumes and employs a Growing Neural Gas procedure to derive graph representations of pocket topologies. Self-organizing map (SOM) projections revealed a limited number of pocket topologies. We argue that there is only a small set of pocket shapes realized in the known ligand-receptor complexes.
For a virtual screening study, we introduce a combination of machine learning techniques, employing a graph kernel, Gaussian process regression and clustered cross-validation. The aim was to find ligands of peroxisome-proliferator activated receptor gamma (PPAR-y). The receptors in the PPAR family belong to the steroid-thyroid-retinoid superfamily of nuclear receptors and act as transcription factors. They play a role in the regulation of lipid and glucose metabolism in vertebrates and are linked to various human processes and diseases. For this study, we used a dataset of 176 PPAR-y agonists published by Ruecker et al. ...
A new method to bridge the gap between ligand and receptor-based methods in virtual screening (VS) is presented. We introduce a structure-derived virtual ligand (VL) model as an extension to a previously published pseudo-ligand technique [1]: LIQUID [2] fuzzy pharmacophore virtual screening is combined with grid-based protein binding site predictions of PocketPicker [3]. This approach might help reduce bias introduced by manual selection of binding site residues and introduces pocket shape information to the VL. It allows for a combination of several protein structure models into a single "fuzzy" VL representation, which can be used to scan screening compound collections for ligand structures with a similar potential pharmacophore. PocketPicker employs an elaborate grid-based scanning procedure to determine buried cavities and depressions on the protein's surface. Potential binding sites are represented by clusters of grid probes characterizing the shape and accessibility of a cavity. A rule-based system is then applied to project reverse pharmacophore types onto the grid probes of a selected pocket. The pocket pharmacophore types are assigned depending on the properties and geometry of the protein residues surrounding the pocket with regard to their relative position towards the grid probes. LIQUID is used to cluster representative pocket probes by their pharmacophore types describing a fuzzy VL model. The VL is encoded in a correlation vector, which can then be compared to a database of pre-calculated ligand models. A retrospective screening using the fuzzy VL and several protein structures was evaluated by ten fold cross-validation with ROC-AUC and BEDROC metrics, obtaining a significant enrichment of actives. Future work will be devoted to prospective screening using a novel protein target of Helicobacter pylori and compounds from commercial providers.
Two methods for the fast, fragment-based combinatorial molecule assembly were developed. The software COLIBREE® (Combinatorial Library Breeding) generates candidate structures from scratch, based on stochastic optimization [1]. Result structures of a COLIBREE design run are based on a fixed scaffold and variable linkers and side-chains. Linkers representing virtual chemical reactions and side-chain building blocks obtained from pseudo-retrosynthetic dissection of large compound databases are exchanged during optimization. The process of molecule design employs a discrete version of Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) [2]. Assembled compounds are scored according to their similarity to known reference ligands. Distance to reference molecules is computed in the space of the topological pharmacophore descriptor CATS [3]. In a case study, the approach was applied to the de novo design of potential peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR gamma) selective agonists. In a second approach, we developed the formal grammar Reaction-MQL [4] for the in silico representation and application of chemical reactions. Chemical transformation schemes are defined by functional groups participating in known organic reactions. The substructures are specified by the linear Molecular Query Language (MQL) [5]. The developed software package contains a parser for Reaction-MQL-expressions and enables users to design, test and virtually apply chemical reactions. The program has already been used to create combinatorial libraries for virtual screening studies. It was also applied in fragmentation studies with different sets of retrosynthetic reactions and various compound libraries.
There is a renewed interest in pseudoreceptor models which enable computational chemists to bridge the gap of ligand- and receptor-based drug design. We developed a pseudoreceptor model for the histamine H4 receptor (H4R) based on five potent antagonists representing different chemotypes. Here we present the selection of potential ligand binding pockets that occur during molecular dynamics (MD) simulations of a homology-based receptor model. We present a method for prioritizing receptor models according to their match with the consensus ligand-binding mode represented by the pseudoreceptor. In this way, ligand information can be transferred to receptor-based modelling. We use Geometric Hashing to match three-dimensional points in Cartesion space. This allows for the rapid translation- and rotation-free comparison of atom coordinates, which also permits partial matching. The only prerequisite is a hash table, which uses distance triplets as hash keys. Each time a distance triplet occurring in the candidate point set which corresponds to an existing key, the match is represented by a vote of the respective key. Finally, the global match of both point sets can be easily extracted by selection of voted distance triplets. The results revealed a preferred ligand-binding pocket in H4R, which would not have been identified using an unrefined homology model of the protein. The key idea was to rely on ligand information by pseudoreceptor modelling.
A generic drug product (World Health Organization (WHO) terminology: multisource product) is usually marketed and manufactured after the expiry date of the innovator’s patent. Generic drugs are less expensive than the innovator products because generic manufacturers do not have to amortize the investment costs of research, development, marketing, and promotion. Multisource products must contain the same active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) as the original formulation and have to be shown to be interchangeable with the original formulation. Multisource products have to be shown bioequivalent to the innovator counterpart with respect to pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties. Multisource products are therefore identical in dose, strength, route of administration, safety, efficacy, and intended use. Bioequivalence can be demonstrated by in vitro dissolution, pharmacokinetic, pharmacodynamic or clinical studies. Since 2000, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) allows the approval of certain multisource products solely on the basis of in vitro studies, i.e. by waiving in vivo studies in humans (“Biowaiver”), based on the Biopharmaceutics Classification Scheme (BCS). The BCS characterizes APIs by their solubility and permeability in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT). The different BCS Classes I-IV (Class I: high solubility, high permeability; Class II: low solubility, high permeability; Class III: high solubility, low permeability and Class IV: low solubility, low permeability) result from all possible combinations of high and low solubility with high and low permeability. Since the adoption of the BCS by the FDA in 1995, the BCS criteria have been under continuous development. In 2006, the WHO has released the most recent bioequivalence guidance including relaxed criteria for bioequivalence studies based on modified BCS criteria. According to this guidance, APIs belonging to the BCS classes I – and under defined conditions - II and III – are eligible for a biowaiver-based approval. The principal objective of this work was to characterize the first-line anti tuberculosis APIs, isoniazid, pyrazinamide, ethambutol dihydrochloride and rifampicin, according to their physicochemical, biopharmaceutical, pharmacokinetic and pharmacological properties and to classify them according to the BCS. Ethambutol dihydrochloride and isoniazid were classified as borderline BCS class I/III APIs. Pyrazinamide was classified as a BCS class III and rifampicin as a BCS class II API. Based on the BCS classification and the additional criteria defined in the WHO bioequivalence guidance, the possibility of biowaiver-based approval for immediate release (immediate release) solid oral dosage forms containing the first-line antituberculosis drugs was evaluated. A biowaiver-based approval with defined constraints was recommended for immediate release solid oral dosage forms containing isoniazid (interaction with reducing sugars), pyrazinamide and ethambutol dihydrochloride (relative narrow therapeutic index). Rifampicin was classified as a BCS class II API, and it was concluded that rifampicin containing solid oral immediate release drug products as well as Scale-Up and Post-Approval Changes (SUPAC) changes should not be approved by a biowaiver on the following basis: (i) its solubility and dissolution are highly variable due to polymorphism and instability, (ii) concomitant intake of food and antacids reduces its absorption and bioavailability, (iii) no in vitro predictive dissolution test has been found which correlates to in vivo absorption and (iv) several publications reporting cases of non-bioequivalent and bioinequivalent rifampicin products have been located in the literature. Thus, it is recommended that bioequivalence of rifampicin containing solid oral immediate release drug products should be established by in vivo pharmacokinetic studies in humans. This risk-benefit benefit assessment of a biowaiver-based approval was presented as a poster at the American Association of Pharmaceutical Scientists (AAPS) 2005 and subsequently published as “Biowaiver Monographs” in the Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. Based on the assessment of the dissolution properties of the antituberculosis drugs for a biowaiver approval, quality control dissolution methodologies for the International Pharmacopoeia (Pharm. Int.) were developed, presented at the WHO expert meeting and adopted in the Pharm. Int. (http://www.who.int/medicines/publications/pharmprep/OMS_TRS_948.pdf). Additionally, preliminary biowaiver recommendations were also developed for four firstline antimalarial drugs listed on the WHO Essential Medicines List (EML): Quinine, as both the hydrochloride and sulphate, and proguanil hydrochloride were classified as borderline BCS class I/III APIs. Since quinine is a narrow therapeutic index drug and many cases of non-bioequivalence have been reported in the literature, a biowaiverbased approval was not recommended. For solid oral immediate release dosage forms containing proguanil a biowaiver-based approval was recommended under the condition that they dissolve very rapidly. Primaquine phosphate was classified as a BCS class I API. Therefore, a biowaiver-based approval was recommended for immediate release solid oral dosage forms containing primaquine phosphate. Mefloquine hydrochloride was classified as a basic, BCS class IV/II API, making it ineligible for the biowaiver. Additionally, reports of non-bioequivalence and a narrow therapeutic index were found in the scientific literature. Consequently, bioequivalence of solid oral immediate release dosage forms containing mefloquine hydrochloride should be established by in vivo pharmacokinetic studies. The results for quinine hydrochloride and sulphate, proguanil hydrochloride, primaquine diphosphate and mefloquine hydrochloride were presented as a poster at the Pharmaceutical Sciences World Congress (PSWC) 2007 and published as a WHO Collaborating Center Report in June 2006. The aim of this project was to collect, evaluate, generate and publish relevant information for a biowaiver-based approval of essential medicines in order to provide a summary to local regulatory authorities. This information complements the selected list of essential medicines by providing information about the biopharmaceutical properties and pharmaceutical quality of solid oral immediate release dosage forms containing these APIs. The aim of the biowaiver project, inspired by the WHO and brought in life by the International Pharmaceutical Federation (FIP), is to enable access to essential medicines in standardized quality at an affordable price. In this work, a significant contribution to this aim in the form of four biowaiver monographs for the antituberculosis drugs and several reports on the antimalarials has been achieved.
Channelrhodopsine sind blaulichtsensitive, Retinal-bindende Proteine aus der Grünalge Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. Channelrhodopsin 2 (ChR2) wurde als heptahelikaler, kationenselektiver Ionenkanal charakterisiert (Nagel et al., 2003). Wie die zur selben Proteinfamilie gehörende Protonenpumpe Bakteriorhodopsin (bR) wird ChR2 durch Licht aktiviert; allerdings wird hierbei ein passiver Strom ausgelöst, bei dem Kationen entsprechend ihres elektrochemischen Gradienten fließen. Aufgrund dieser Eigenschaft eignet sich ChR2 zur lichtinduzierten Depolarisation von Zellen und zur Auslösung von Aktionspotentialen in Neuronen, über deren Membran ein Konzentrationsgradient von Kationen anliegt (Boyden et al., 2005). Die Stimulation elektrischer Aktivität von ChR2-exprimierenden Neuronen im Hirngewebe von Mäusen, die ChR2 transgen exprimieren, kann beispielsweise genutzt werden, um die Konnektivität von Neuronen und Hirnbereichen zu untersuchen (z.B. Wang et al., 2007). Für diese und weitere Anwendungen war es interessant, ChR2 zelltyp- oder regionenspezifisch in Mäusen zu exprimieren. Zu diesem Zweck sollte ChR2/eGFP bicistronisch oder ChR2-YFP als Fusionsprotein unter einem ubiquitären Promotor exprimiert werden; die Expression sollte aber durch ein Stop-Element unterbunden werden, das von loxP-sites flankiert ist (unaktiviertes Transgen). Das Enzym Cre- Rekombinase entfernt durch Rekombination das Stop-Element an diesen Erkennungssequenzen, wodurch die ChR2-Expression ermöglicht werden sollte (aktiviertes Transgen). Die Cre-Rekombinase kann dabei sowohl viral als auch transgen unter zelltyp- und regionenspezifischen Promotoren exprimiert werden und damit die regionale Spezifität und den Zeitpunkt der ChR2-Expression bestimmen. Es wurden drei Mauslinien über Pronukleus-Injektionen erhalten, die den Reporter β-Galactosidase des unaktivierten Transgens exprimierten. Die Verpaarung von Mäusen dieser Linien mit Cre-Rekombinase-exprimierenden Mauslinien führte aber nur zu einer ineffizienten Aktivierung des Transgens, so dass ChR2-Expression einzig mittels RT-PCR nachgewiesen werden konnte. Nach viraler Expression der Cre-Rekombinase im Hippokampus konnte eine Aktivierung des ChR2-Transgens auch mittels Immunfluoreszenz gezeigt werden. Mangels GFP-Fluoreszenz waren die transgenen Linien aber nicht für gezielte elektrophysiologische Ableitungen verwendbar. In einem zweiten Ansatz wurden transgene Mäuse über embryonale Stammzellen (ES-Zellen) generiert. Bei diesem Ansatz wird eine geringere Kopienzahl des Transgens ins Genom integriert. In den ES-Zellen konnte durch transiente Cre-Rekombinase-Expression gezeigt werden, dass das Transgen effizient aktiviert werden konnte. Aus mehreren ES-Zell-Klonen wurden chimäre Mäuse erhalten, die zum jetzigen Zeitpunkt auf Keimbahntransmission getestet werden. Wie ChR2 einen Kationenkanal bildet und welche Transmembrandomänen und Aminosäuren daran beteiligt sind, ist unbekannt. Daher wurde im zweiten Teil dieser Arbeit untersucht, ob die Positionen E90, E97 und E101, welche in der zweiten Transmembranhelix untereinander zu liegen scheinen, Teil einer Ionenpore sein könnten. Um den Einfluss dieser Aminosäuren auf die Kationenleitung und/ oder – selektivität zu untersuchen, wurden diese Positionen substituiert und die resultierenden ChR2-Mutantenproteine in Xenopus laevis Oozyten exprimiert und elektrophysiologisch analysiert. Um Na+- bzw. Protonen-mediierte Ströme unterscheiden zu können, wurden Na+-haltige und Na+-freie Puffer verschiedener pH-Werte verwendet. Lichtinduzierte Ströme von ChR2E97A, ChR2E97Q, ChR2E97K und ChR2E101K waren im Vergleich zum Wildtyp stark reduziert, ausschließlich bei pH 4 zu detektieren und wohl hauptsächlich durch Protonen getragen. Die isofunktionale, aber ladungsneutrale Mutation ChR2E90Q zeigte nur geringe Unterschiede zum Wildtyp. Alaninsubstitution (E90A) als auch Ladungsinversion (E90K) führte zu starken Veränderungen des ChR2-Stroms im Vergleich zum Wildtyp. ChR2E90A zeigte im Vergleich zum Wildtyp reduzierte Protonenströme sowie einen erhöhten Natriumstrom, der durch Protonen inhibierbar war. Die Ladungsinversion ChR2E90K führte zu allgemein stark verminderten Leitfähigkeiten, lediglich bei pH 4 konnten noch Ströme gemessen werden. Die Ergebnisse sind der erste Hinweis auf eine Beteiligung von Glutamatresten an der Ionenleitfähigkeit in der Transmembranhelix 2 von ChR2.
The transcription factor p63 is part of the p53 protein family, which consists of three members, p53, p63 and p73. P63 shares structural similarity with all family members, but is associated to different biological functions than p53 or p73. While p53 is mainly linked to tumor suppression and p73 is connected with neuronal development, p63 has been connected to critical biological roles within ectodermal development and skin stem cell biology as well as supervision of the genetic stability of oocytes. Due to its gene structure p63 is expressed as at least six different isoforms, three of them containing a N-terminal transactivation domain. The isoforms that are of biological relevance both have a C-terminal inhibitory domain that negatively regulates the transcriptional activity. This inhibitory domain is supposed to contain two individual components of which one is internally binding and masking the transactivation domain while the other one can be sumoylated. To further investigate this domain a mutational analysis with the help of transactivation assays in SAOS2 cells was carried out to identify the critical amino acids within the inhibitory domain and the impact on transcriptional activity of TAp63alpha, the p63-isoform which is essential for the integrity of the female germline. The results of these experiments show that a stretch of approximately 13 amino acids seems to be important for the regulation of transcriptional activity in TAp63alpha, due to the increased transcriptional activity occurring in this region after mutation. Additional experiments showed that this mechanism is distinct from sumoylation, which seems to have only implications for the intracellular level of TAp63alpha. As a conclusion, the C-terminus of the Tap63alpha is essential for two different mechanisms, which control the transcriptional activity of the protein. Both regulatory elements are independent from each other and can now be restricted to certain amino acids. Activation of the wild type protein might take place in the identified region via post-translational modification. Furthermore an inhibition assay was carried out to test if the same region might have implications on the second biological relevant isoform deltaNp63alpha. The results show that the same amino acids which show an impact on transcriptional activity in Tap63alpha lead to a significant change in functional behaviour of deltaNp63alpha. There is a possibility that both proteins are regulated with opposite effects via the same mechanisms, based at the C-terminus of the p63alpha-isoforms. In both cases a modification of these residues could lead to a more opened conformation of the protein with consequences on promoter binding, which can be even important for deltaNp63alpha with respect to promoter squelching. Both alpha-isoforms seem to be regulated via the C-terminus and to elucidate if that is also the case for TAp63gamma a deletion analysis was carried out. The results show that there are also amino acids within the C-terminus of TAp63gamma, which have implications on the transcriptional activity of the protein. Therefore the C-terminus seems to play a major role for regulation of diverse p63 isoforms.