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Biochemische Charakterisierung der Cytochrom-c-Oxidase-Biogenesefaktoren CtaA und Surf1 (2011)

Achim Hannappel

Die Atmungskette ist für aerob lebende Organismen die wichtigste Quelle zur Erzeugung von Energie. Der Cytochrom c Oxidase (COX) kommt hierbei als letztem Enzym innerhalb der Elektronentransportkette eine besondere Bedeutung zu. Im mitochondrialen Fall besteht die Oxidase aus bis zu 13 Untereinheiten, deren Assemblierung in einem gerichteten und strikt regulierten Prozess von statten geht. Defekte innerhalb des Assemblierungsprozesses führen zu schweren respiratorischen Defiziten, die die Ursache für neurodegenerative und myopathische Erkrankungen sind. Der Assemblierungsprozess wird bei der Hefe von mehr als 30 verschiedenen Proteinfaktoren begleitet, die sich letztlich nicht als Untereinheiten im COX Holoenzym finden. Die Cytochrom c Oxidase des Bodenbakteriums Paracoccus denitrificans weist nicht nur eine hohe strukturelle Ähnlichkeit zu den Haupt-Untereinheiten I-III der mitochondrialen Oxidase auf, sondern das Bakterium kodiert ebenfalls für eine Reihe von Assemblierungsfaktoren, die am Einbau der Häm a- und Kupfer-Kofaktoren beteiligt sind. Beispiele hierfür sind die Biogenesefaktoren Häm a Synthase (CtaA) und die Surf1-Proteine (Surf1c und Surf1q), deren biochemische Charakterisierung das vorrangige Ziel dieser Arbeit war. In diesem Sinne wurden für CtaA Expressions- und Aufreinigungsprotokolle entwickelt, die es erlaubten, das Enzym in drei spektroskopisch unterscheidbaren, mit verschiedenen Häm-Typen beladenen Formen zu isolieren. Mit Hilfe einer Mutationsstudie konnten sowohl für Surf1c als auch für Surf1q an einer Häm a-Bindung beteiligte Aminosäurereste identifiziert werden. Hierbei erlaubte insbesondere die Charakterisierung eines konservierten Tryptophanrestes die Entwicklung eines Bindungsmodells von Häm a an Surf1. Die Etablierung eines in vitro Häm-Transfer Assays wies zum ersten Mal eine direkte Interaktion zwischen CtaA und Surf1 nach, in deren Verlauf spezifisch Häm a von CtaA auf Surf1 übertragen wird. Expressionsstudien von CtaA in Paracoccus zeigten zweifelsfrei, dass die Synthese von Häm a auf Ebene des Vorläufermoleküls Häm b reguliert ist und eine Synthese des Kofaktors an eine Abgabe an Untereinheit I im Rahmen der COX-Biogenese gekoppelt ist. Eine nähere Charakterisierung der durch Deletion von surf1c hervorgerufenen Defekte der COX erwies, dass die Oxidase neben einer bereits beschriebenen Reduktion des Häm a-Gehalts überraschenderweise auch in Form von Häm b einen unphysiologischen Häm-Typ bindet. Zusammengenommen erhärten die gewonnen Erkenntnisse die These, dass Surf1 direkt an der Inkorporation der Häm a-Kofaktoren in die Untereinheit I der Oxidase beteiligt ist. Dabei wirkt das Protein möglicherweise als molekularer Filter, der für den Einbau des physiologisch bedeutsamen Häm-Typs (Häm a) verantwortlich ist. Darüber hinaus stabilisiert es als vermittelnder Faktor die Interaktion von CtaA und Untereinheit I und sorgt somit für einen erleichterten und koordinierten Einbau des Häms in die Oxidase. Die in dieser Arbeit am bakteriellen Modellsystem gewonnen Erkenntnisse sollten aufgrund der hohen Ähnlichkeit sowohl der Cytochrom c Oxidase als auch der beteiligten Biogenesefaktoren direkte Rückschlüsse auf die Geschehnisse im humanen System erlauben.

Die Bedeutung von Zelltod-Prozessen während der Alterung des filamentösen Ascomyzeten Podospora anserina (2011)

Diana Brust

Die im Rahmen dieser Arbeit durchgeführten Untersuchungen führten zu folgenden Ergebnissen: 1. In-silico Analysen von putativen Apoptose-Faktoren im Genom von P. anserina Es konnten mehrere Gene, die in einer Apoptose-Maschinerie involviert sein könnten, im Genom von P. anserina identifiziert werden. Diese Homologen wurden in zwei Ka-tegorien unterteilt: (i) die nicht-mitochondrialen Proteine PaMCA1, PaMCA2 und PaPARP und (ii) die Homologen des Apoptose-induzierenden Faktors AIF. 2. Einfluss der Metacaspase-Aktivität auf programmierte Zelltodprozesse Mithilfe von Aktivitätsmessungen konnte eine Arginin-spezifische Aktivität der Meta-caspasen nachgewiesen werden. Diese Metacaspase-Aktivität nimmt in seneszenten Kulturen und nach H2O2-Behandlung signifikant zu. Diese Ergebnisse unterstützen die Hypothese eines programmierten, ROS-induzierten Zelltods im letzten Entwicklungs-stadium des Alternsmodell P. anserina. 3. Die Rolle von AIF-Homologen in der Entwicklung von P. anserina GFP-Fusionsproteine identifizierten eine mitochondriale Lokalisation der AIF-Homologen PaAIF2, PaAMID2 und PaPRG3. Desweiteren konnte eine altersabhängige PaAIF2-Translokation von den Mitochondrien zum Zellkern gezeigt werden, ähnlich der Apoptose-induzierenden Translokation von humanem AIF. Die Deletion von PaAif2 und PaAmid2 führte zu einer signifikanten Resistenz gegenüber oxidativem Stress und zu einer Verlängerung der Lebensspanne. Diese Befunde weisen auf einen ROS-induzierten, AIF-vermittelten Zelltod hin, der an der Lebensspannen-Kontrolle von P. anserina beteiligt ist. 4. Die Funktion des Proteins PaCYPD bei Seneszenz und programmiertem Zelltod Membranpotential-Messungen konnten einen Rückgang des mitochondrialen Memb-ranpotentials von 21 % bei den PaCYPD-Überexpressionsstämmen nachweisen. Durch die Behandlung mit dem spezifischen PaCYPD-Inhibitor CSA konnte das Membranpo-tential wieder normalisiert werden. Zusammen mit dem detektierten Verlust von 7 Zusammenfassung 125 Cytochrom c in den Mitochondrien der Überexpressionsstämme wird durch diese Studi-en die Vermutung einer PaCYPD-abhängigen Öffnung der mPTP untermauert. Die Pa-PaCypD-Deletion führte zu einer signifikanten Resistenz gegenüber mitochondrial-abhängigem, oxidativem Stress und gegenüber verschiedenen Apoptose-Induktoren. Die Überexpression von PaCypD hingegen führte zu einem beschleunigten Alterungspro-zess (Präseneszenz), einem verschlechterten Resistenzverhalten gegenüber Stress- und Apoptose-Induktoren und zu einer massiven Verkürzung der Lebensspanne. Die Le-bensspanne konnte aber durch die Behandlung mit CSA wieder auf Wildtyp-Niveau verbessert werden. Dies weist auf einen PaCYPD-vermittelte Zelltod hin. Interessan-terweise konnte durch das Wachstum auf CSA-haltigem Medium auch die Lebensspanne des Wildtyps verlängert werden. Um die hier nachgewiesene, lebensver-längernde Wirkung von CSA zu verifizieren, könnte diese Studie leicht auf andere Modellorganismen übertragen werden.

In vivo selection of retroviral display libraries for tumor homing (2010)

Lydia Jasmin Dürner

The display of foreign polypeptides and proteins on the surface of viruses or cells provides an important tool for the engineering of biomolecules and the analysis of their interactions with binding partners. The most extensively used display platform is the coat protein of the filamentous bacteriophage (Smith, 1985). Phage display libraries have often been selected for polypeptides, e.g. single chain (sc) antibodies that bind to a protein of interest, but in vivo selection could only be demonstrated for peptides so far. An alternative display platform is the retrovirus murine leukemia virus (MLV). Here, polypeptides are displayed at the N-terminus of the viral envelope glycoprotein. Proof of principle for this platform was demonstrated for protease substrate libraries, which can be selected through coupling proteolytic activation with viral infectivity (Buchholz et al., 1998). Selection of the library CX4A on living cells resulted in viruses with more than three orders of magnitude improved spreading efficiency through tumor cells (Hartl et al., 2005). Also scAb libraries have recently been displayed and selected using retroviruses (Urban et al., 2005). The library scFvlibxMo displays the repertoire of phage display preselected sc antibodies for laminin-1 binding. The retrovirus based selection process resulted in laminin-specific sc antibodies with improved expression levels in mammalian cells. This thesis describes the in vivo (i.e. in mouse tumor models) selection of the C-X4-A and scFvlibxMo for tumor homing upon systemic delivery. For selection of the protease substrate library C-X4-A a subcutaneous tumor was induced in SCID mice followed by three systemic injections of the library. The selection process was monitored over a period of 34 days. After the incubation period mice were sacrificed and virus load in organs and tumor determined. PCR analysis after 34 days showed that virus from the library had preferentially infected the tumor. Sequence analysis showed the selection of protease substrates with the most prominent one with a frequency of over 65%. The four most prominent protease substrate variants where reconstituted into the original viral backbone for further investigation (C-SK-A, C-HI-A, C-HM-A and C-HS-A). Interestingly, these viruses exhibited a reduced spreading capacity in vitro on HT1080 cells as compared to the C-AK-A virus, which had previously been selected on HT1080 1 Summary 9 cells. When assayed for tumor homing, however, viruses C-HI-A and C-HS-A had clearly improved in comparison to C-AK-A. Tumor tissue had been infected at rates of over 55% while virus load of extratumoral organs was very low (infection rates <0.7 for C-HS-A and <0.02 for C-HI-A). Tumor targeting capacity had thus been improved over 10-fold by the in vivo selection of the C-X4-A library. The experimental set up for the in vivo selection of the scFvlibxMo library was performed according to that of the C-X4-A library. Fingerprint analysis of the selected viruses that infected tumor tissue resulted in the identification of seven antibody variants showing unique CDR3 sequences. Two prominent clones (M49T-A and M49T-B) were cloned back into the MoMLV genome for further analysis of the reconstituted viruses. While variant B bound laminin-1 efficiently, variant A was unable to do so, although it was selected at highest frequency (76%). Both reconstituted viruses were equally well infectious and spread through HT1080rec1 cells at a similar efficiency as MoMLV. In an in vivo competition experiment the selected viruses clearly out-competed a laminin-1 binding reference virus L36xMo for tumor homing. To understand the molecular driving forces behind the in vivo selection process the epitope of the selected scFv M49T-A was identified using a phage peptide library approach. In silico analysis led to the identification of a small group of possible antigens, including tenascin, fibronectin and collagen. The data described in this thesis demonstrate that the retrovirus display platform is capable of allowing the in vivo selection of protease substrates and scFvs. Notably, the replication competence of the system introduced an additional level of complexity to the library. The performed in vivo selections significantly enhanced tumor tropism. Selective infection of tumor cells combined with transfer of anti-tumoral genes is an attractive strategy for cancer therapy being in focus of current research. The viruses selected in this thesis build prime candidates for targeted retrovirus based tumor therapy.

Untersuchungen zur Bedeutung von NOSTRIN in der Leberzirrhose und Charakterisierung einer neuen NOSTRIN-Isoform (2007)

Anja Wiesenthal

Die endotheliale NO-Synthase (eNOS) ist im kardiovaskulären System der Hauptproduzent von Stickstoffmonoxid (NO). Studien deuten auf eine Beteiligung der eNOS im Krankheits-verlauf einer Leberzirrhose hin; zirrhotische Tiere zeigen eine reduzierte hepatische eNOS-Aktivität bei unveränderten Proteinmengen. Die reduzierte NO-Menge trägt zu einer Erhöh-ung des intrahepatischen Widerstandes und einer portalen Hypertonie bei. Inhibitoren und posttranslationale Modifikationen der eNOS wurden als auslösende Faktoren postuliert, aber auch am intrazellulären Transport der eNOS beteiligte Proteine könnten eine wichtige Rolle spielen. Ein solches ist das neue Protein NOSTRIN (“eNOS traffic inducer”), das über seine C-terminale SH3-Domäne an eNOS bindet und durch seine N-terminale FCH Domäne an Membranen assoziiert. In vorhergegangenen Studien wurde nur ein translatiertes Protein identifiziert, bezeichnet als NOSTRINalpha. In der vorliegenden Arbeit habe ich eine verkürzte Isoform entdeckt (NOSTRINbeta), die aus einem alternativen Spleißvorgang hervorgeht. Ihr fehlt fast die gesamte FCH Domäne, wodurch keine Membranbindung mehr stattfindet. Diese Isoform konnte nur in pathogenem Lebergewebe nachgewiesen werden. Untersuchun-gen mittels Western Blotting und qRT-PCR mit Proben aus Patienten mit Zirrhose, alkoholischer Hepatitis oder von gesunden Personen, zeigten eine deutliche Erhöhung der Expression beider NOSTRIN-Isoformen von gesundem zu zirrhotischem Gewebe. NOSTRINalpha mRNA-Mengen waren in zirrhotischen vs. gesunden Proben verdoppelt, und in Proben aus Patienten mit zusätzlicher Hepatitis verdreifacht. Dies deutet darauf hin, dass erhöhte Mengen von NOSTRINalpha zu einer Internalisierung und Inaktivierung der eNOS führen könnten. NOSTRINalpha und NOSTRINbeta wurden ebenfalls in Hep3B-Zellen auf Protein und mRNA-Ebene nachgewiesen, ihre Expression war durch Retinsäure zeit- und dosisabhängig stimulierbar. NOSTRINalpha lokalisiert an Plasmamembran und vesikulären Strukturen, NOSTRINbeta hingegen hauptsächlich im Zellkern, eine geringe Fraktion im Zytosol. Über Kartier-ungsstudien wurden zwei nuclear leading sequences (NLS) identifiziert, die den Transport in den Zellkern vermitteln, sowie eine Crm-1-abhängige nuclear export sequence (NES). Im EMSA konnte die Bindung von NOSTRINbeta an die Promotorregion des NOSTRIN-Gens gezeigt werden. Diese Ergebnisse legen eine Funktion von NOSTRINbeta als Transkriptionsfaktor nahe, evtl. innerhalb einer negativen Rückkopplung auf die NOSTRINalpha-Expression. Weiter-führende Studien sollen diesen potentiellen molekularen Mechanismus im Detail klären.

Expression and characterization of P-type ATPases for structural studies (2007)

Sivaram Chandra Chintalapati

Two types of proteins transport ions across the membrane – ion channels and ion pumps. Ion pumps transport ions against their electrochemical gradient by co-transporting another ion or a substrate molecule through a concentration gradient or by coupling this process to an energy source like ATP. Those that couple ATP hydrolysis to ion transport are called ion motive ATPases and can be classified as ‘V’, ‘F’ and ‘P’ types. In this thesis, two sub-classes of P-type ATPases, PIIIA and PIB were studied. Attempts were made to over-express and crystallize the plant proton pump AHA2 (a PIIIA-ATPase). Also, the two putative copper transporting ATPases, CtrA3 (CopB-like) and CtrA2 (CopA-like) from Aquifex aeolicus (both PIB pumps) were over-expressed in E. coli and characterized. PIIIA-type pumps transport protons across the membrane and are found exclusively in plants and fungi, and probably some archaea. One of the most characterized proton pump biochemically is the A. thaliana proton pump AHA2. An 8Å projection map of this enzyme is already available (Jahn 2001). PIBATPases, also called CPX type pumps transport heavy metal ions such as Cu+, Cu2+, Zn2+, Pb2+, Cd2+, Co2+ across biological membranes and play an important role in homeostasis and biotolerance of these metals. CopA and CopB are two such proteins that transport copper across cell membrane found in many prokaryotes. CopB-like proteins are found almost exclusively in bacteria, with CPH sequence motif, while CopA-like proteins have CPC sequence motif, also found in eukaryotic copper transporters including human ATP7A and ATP7B. CopB extrudes Cu2+ across the membrane. CopA is activated by and transports Cu+ but the direction of transport is debated. Attempts were made to over-express the plant proton pump AHA2 in yeast Pichia pastoris. However, the yeast expressed only a truncated protein, which could not be used for further studies. It can be concluded that P. pastoris strain SMD1163 is not a good host for expression of AHA2. Focus was then shifted to AHA2 that has been over-expressed and purified from S. cerevisiae strain RS72. Growth and purification protocols had to be changed from published methods because of laboratory constraints and this probably had an effect on the protein produced. The protein purified from S. cerevisiae could not be crystallized reproducibly for structural studies by electron microscopy. CtrA3 was expressed in E. coli and purified using Ni2+-NTA matrix. Like CopB of A. fulgidus (Mana Capelli 2003), it was active only in the presence of Cu2+ and to some extent in Ag+. The protein was maximally active at 75°C, at pH 7 and in presence of cysteine. Lipids were essential for the activity of CtrA3. However, when the protein was purified in Cymal-6, CtrA3 could not hydrolyze ATP, even when lipids were added to the reaction mixture. For reconstitution of CtrA3 into liposomes for 2D crystallization, several lipids were tested. To screen the lipids compatible for protein incorporation, CtrA3 was dialyzed with different lipids at a high lipid-to-protein ratio of 10:1 and centrifuged by sucrose density gradient. Protein incorporated in lipids localized with liposome fraction in the gradient. Most of the CtrA3 was incorporated into DPPC with no aggregation. This lipid was used for reconstitution of CtrA3 at low LPRs, and at an LPR of 0.3-0.5, the protein formed 2D crystals. A NaCl concentration of 50mM was necessary for the formation of crystals. However, salt removal by dialysis prior to harvesting was essential for obtaining wellordered lattices of CtrA3. Addition of preservatives like trehalose and tannin or direct plunging in liquid ethane for cryo-microscopy destroyed the crystal lattice. Similar to CtrA3, the gene responsible for expression of CtrA2 was amplified from genomic DNA of A. aeolicus and expressed in E. coli and purified by Ni2+-NTA. Functional characterization of CtrA2 was done by analyzing ATP hydrolysis activity of the enzyme. Similar to CopA of A. fulgidus (Mandal 2002), CtrA2 was activated in the presence of Ag+ and to some extent, Cu+. It is possible that both the copper ATPases of A. aeolicus have different ion selectivity- CtrA3, specific for Cu2+ and CtrA2, specific for Cu+. Maximal activity of CtrA2 was also at 75°C. Cysteine was essential for activity of CtrA2, but the protein was not dependent on addition of lipids for activation. Reconstitution of CtrA2 was done similar to CtrA3 for screening of lipids for 2D crystallization. Of the lipids tested, DOPC reconstituted the protein best. However, screening at low LPRs did not yield any crystals. Even though both CtrA3 and CtrA2 are similar heavy metal transporting Ptype ATPases from the same organism and have 36% identity, they behaved completely different in their expression levels in E. coli, purification profiles, activity and reconstitution in lipids.

Production, biochemical characterization and preliminary structural studies of human Endothelin B receptor in its ligand-bound state (2007)

Ankita Srivastava

G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) comprise the largest superfamily of cell surface receptors and possess a signature motif of seven transmembrane helices. The endothelin B (ETB) receptor is a member of rhodopsin like GPCR family. It plays an important role in vasodilation and is found in the membranes of the endothelial cells enveloping blood vessels. Knowledge of the three-dimensional structure of G-protein coupled receptors in general would significantly add to our understanding of their molecular mechanisms and would be useful in the search for new specific drugs. However, three-dimensional structural analysis will require milligram quantities of pure and homogeneous protein. This dissertation is a study of the production, biochemical characterization and preliminary structural studies of the human ETB G-protein coupled receptor. The present work aimed at elucidating the structure and mechanistic details of function of the receptor by using a combination of X-ray crystallographic and NMR methods for collecting structural data. To obtain homogenous and monodisperse receptor protein preparation for structural and functional studies, we implemented the baculovirus expression system for the production of ETB receptor for the present work. The two step affinity purification ensured capture of full-length receptor. Silver stained SDS-PAGE of the purified receptor-ligand complex indicated greater than 90% protein purity. Based on previous reports, we used the high affinity ligand (endothelin -1) binding to the receptor for co-crystallization of receptor-ligand complex by locking the receptor in the activated conformation. As a prerequisite for 3D crystallization trials, the stability of the detergent solubilized receptor-ligand complex was assessed with respect to pH, temperature and time. Receptor-ligand complex did not show any degradation and aggregation over 6 days at 4°C and 18°C. Interestingly, change of pH suggested that receptor-ligand complex is unstable at lower pH due to possible charge induced conformational changes. In our work, we introduced the idea of using fluorophore labeled ligand for simple visual recognition of the receptor-ligand complex during purification and crystallization. On the other hand, we alternatively used biotinylated endothelin-1 to produce an adequate amount of ligand bound receptor complex, thus ensuring homogeneity of the purified complex for use in structural studies. Thus far, preliminary crystals have been obtained for both the unlabelled ET-1 and fluorophore labeled ET-1 complexed with ETB receptor. Moreover, we performed the systematic investigation of the protein/peptide binding partner for the receptor-ligand complex with the chief aims of stabilizing structure and increasing the possibilities of 3D-crystal contacts. Thus subsequent to formation of receptor-ligand complex, the additional in vitro formation of a ternary arrestin-receptor-ligand complex was also attempted for use in structural studies. We successfully demonstrated that arrestin mutant (R169E) forms a tight complex with ETB receptor regardless of its phosphorylation state. A second approach to get insight into the ETB receptor ligand binding site relied on the use of spin isotope labeled ET-1 ligand peptide by employing solid state MAS NMR method. Preliminary data provided compelling evidence that the C-terminal region of the peptide is immobilized in an ordered environment and presumably bound to the receptor. This indicates that the approach is feasible, although there are difficulties in sample preparation for further spectral measurements and data collection which are currently being discussed in ongoing investigations. At this point of our research work, we initiated a collaborative effort to obtain high yields of pure, active receptor without post translational modifications, from an E. coli cell lysate based in vitro expression system. We successfully optimized the production of homogenous and monodisperse endothelin B receptor in mg amounts. Thus this could potentially provide an alternative source of high quality receptor production in large quantities for immediate crystallization trials. Thus we hope that the results from these investigations can be applied in a more general sense to the production and crystallization of other G protein-coupled receptors.

Establishment of an Escherichia coli cell-free expression system for thelarge scale production of selected membrane proteins (2007)

Shweta Tiwar

Membrane proteins play vital role in a variety of cellular processes, such as signal transduction, transport and recognition. In turn they are involved in numerous human diseases and currently represent one of the most prevalent drug targets. A comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms mediated by membrane proteins requires information about their structures at near-atomic resolution, although structural studies of membrane proteins remain behind those of soluble proteins. A bottleneck in the study of membrane proteins resides in the difficulties that are encountered during their high-level production in cell based systems. However, many toxic effects attributed to the over production of membrane proteins are eliminated by cell-free expression, as viable host cells are no longer required. Therefore, the objective of this study was to obtain adequate amounts of selected membrane transport proteins for their structural studies using a cell-free expression system. For the establishment of the cell-free system for membrane proteins, the transporters YbgR and YiiP from Salmonella typhimurium LT2, PF0558 and PF1373 from Pyrococcus furiosus, from the cation diffusion family (CDF), BetP from Corynebacterium glutamicum from the betaine/carnitine/choline transporter (BCCT) family and Aq-2030 from Aquifex aeolicus VF5 from the monovalent cation/proton antiporter-2 (CPA2) family were selected. An Escherichia coli S-30 extract based cellfree system was established by generating the best expression constructs of the target proteins, preparing T7 RNA polymerase and an S-30 extract with high translation efficiency. The functionality of the S-30 extract was shown by the cell-free expression of correctly folded Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP). Essential factors of the cell-free system such as the Mg2+ concentration, the bacterial S-30 extract proportion in the reaction mixture and the time-course of cell-free reactions have been optimized. For the cell-free production of membrane proteins in soluble form, the possibility to supplement cell-free reactions with detergents was explored. A wide range of non-ionic or zwitterionic detergents, were found to be compatible with cell-free synthesis, while ionic detergents and non-ionic detergents at high concentrations had an inhibitory effect. Moreover, high concentrations of polyoxyethylene-alkyl-ethers (Brij) detergents were found to have enhancing effect on the production levels as well as on the solubility of cell-free produced proteins. As membrane proteins tend to misfold and aggregate in a membrane-free translation system, the possibility to supplement the cell-free reactions with inner membrane vesicles (IMVs) to obtain correctly folded target transport proteins was explored. All the target proteins were successfully produced in the batch cell-free reactions and were found to be incorporated in the IMVs. A continuous exchange cell-free (CECF) system was established, where consumable substrates (amino acids, nucleotides and energy regenerating compounds) were supplied to the cell-free reaction mixture through a dialysis membrane, which in consequence resulted in high-level production of target proteins compared to the batch system. The osmosensing and osmoregulated sodium-coupled symporter BetP from C. glutamicum was chosen for the large scale production in CECF set-up. The protein is easily produced in E. coli and is functional as assayed by its transport activity, after purification and reconstitution in liposomes. It is therefore possible to compare in-vivo and cell-free production. High-level cell-free production of BetP was achieved in CECF mode in different forms: (i) as precipitate, (ii) as soluble form in detergent, and (iii) incorporated in IMVs. Cell-free production of BetP resulted in the yield of about 0.5 mg of purified BetP from 1 ml of CECF reaction. The yield of purified BetP was increased to 1.6 fold by addition of 1% polyoxyethylene-(20)-cetyl-ether (Brij58) detergent in the reaction mixture. Moreover, the high level cell-free production of BetP (0.5 mg purified BetP/ml reaction mixture) incorporated in IMVs was shown for the first time in this work.However, it was observed that oligomerization of BetP was not efficient in the cell-free system. Factors that can promote the folding of membrane proteins such as lipids and chaperones were investigated. Addition of lipids and molecular chaperone GroE facilitated correct folding of BetP resulting in increased yield and stability of cell-free produced BetP. The results obtained indicate that most of the cell-free produced BetP exists in functional oligomeric form. The possibility of obtaining milligram amounts of BetP, a 12 trans-membrane protein from the cell-free reactions holds promise for structural and functional studies of other membrane proteins. In any case, the strategies adapted in this study should prove extremely valuable for the production of membrane proteins in the E. coli cell-free expression system.

Functional and structural studies on the Atmungsferment Cytochrome c oxidase from Paracoccus denitrificans (2008)

Heike Angerer

Cytochrome c oxidase (CcO), also called Complex IV of the aerobic respiratory chain, is located in the plasma membrane of prokaryotes and in the inner mitochondrial membrane of eukaryotes. The redox energy of dioxygen reduction is used to translocate protons across the membrane resulting in an electrochemical proton gradient. The generated proton gradient is exploited by the adenosine-5’-triphosphate synthase. In this work, bacterial four-subunit aa3-Type CcO from Paracoccus denitrificans (ATCC 13543, 4 SU-wt ATCC CcO) was used for analyses. 1) The recombinant homologously produced 4 SU-wt CcO (4 SU-wt rec CcO) was functionally compared with the native 4 SU-wt ATCC CcO. The 4 SU-wt rec CcO showed functional deficiencies as determined by UV-vis spectroscopy and electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) studies. Total X-ray Reflection Fluorescence measurements show in both wild type CcOs the same ratio of the redoxactive Fe and Cu (2 Fe : 3 Cu) indicating full complement of the functional metals. If CcO contains only subunit I and II, it loses its functional integrity during continuous turnover activity. The importance of subunit III for integrity of CcO was demonstrated using 2 SU-wt rec CcO. Crystallisation trials of suicide inactivated 2 SU-wt rec CcOs have been ineffective using standard crystallisation conditions. Crystals of active 2 SU-wt rec CcO (positive control) have been obtained under these conditions and this result indicates possible structural changes in suicide inactivated 2 SU-wt rec CcO. The structure of active 2 SU-wt rec CcO was determined to 2.25 Å resolution. 2) Terminal oxidases require four electrons for the cleavage of the dioxygen bond (O=O). In general, the catalytic cycle of CcO is described by the electron input and thus by the different redox states of the metal centres: the O, E, R, P and F state. The two-electron reduced R intermediate is able to donate four electrons for dioxygen reduction forming the P state. The P intermediate is an oxoferryl state implying the lack of an electron for the R -> P transition, because the metal centres can only provide three electrons (Fe+II forms Fe+IV and Cu+II forms Cu+I). The P state, where the dioxygen bond is already broken, shows an oxoferryl state (FeIV=O2-) and a nearby tyrosine is proposed to form a tyrosyl radical representing the donor of the missing electron. H2O2-induced artificial intermediates provide the opportunity to investigated different catalytic intermediates in detail. Mixing equimolar amounts of H2O2 to CcO in the O state induces the "two-electron" reduced PH state at high pH and the electronically equal "two-electron" reduced F• H state at low pH. The addition of an excess amount of H2O2 leads to the three-electron reduced FH state. Functional studies using the 4 SU-wt ATCC CcO have demonstrated a bound peroxide (O- - O-) intermediate during the catalytic cycle. Using EPR it was previously shown that Y167 hosts a radical species in PH/F• H state which suggests that Y167 could provide this "missing electron". While X-ray structural models of CcO and Fourier-transformed infrared (FTIR) measurements of oxygenated ("pulsed") 4 SU-wt ATCC CcO suggest a bound peroxide in the O state, UV-vis and EPR spectroscopic studies indicate that other intermediates may also contain such peroxide species. Equimolar and excess amounts of H2O2 induce the PH/F• H and FH states, respectively and catalase treatment of the FH state leads, contrary to the natural direction of the catalytic cycle, to the apparent transition of the FH -> PH/F• H states, which is accompanied by reappearance of an EPR signal from the Y167• radical. The novel PFH/F• FH states are presented here and we postulate that the FH state hosts a superoxide (or peroxide) adduct at CuB in the binuclear site. In addition, the novel P10 state is also introduced having a maximum at lambda = 612 nm in the difference absorption spectrum (minus the O state). The P10 state is induced by mixing CcO in the O state with a pH 10 buffer. This pH 10 induced state resembles standard P states such as PCO, PH and PR. However, the P10 state evolves out of the O state without addition of reduction equivalents. Using EPR spectroscopy it was shown that Y167 hosts a radical species in the P10 state such as in the PH state. In summary, all functional data presented here provide evidence for a peroxide bound during the O state. Finally, a new model for the natural catalytic cycle is proposed. If the O state contains a peroxide, it is also likely that the E and R state contain this species. Even the oxoferryl intermediates P and F states may complex a peroxide at CuB in the binuclear site. 3) The amino acid residue Y167, which hosts the radical in the PH/F•H states, is not directly part of the binuclear site of CcO. For identification of the primary electron donor, two tryptophan variants of CcO, W272F and W164F, which are located nearby the binuclear site, were produced. Evidence is provided that W272 is a kinetically fast electron donor for the O2 molecule. The electron is replenished by Y167, or probably by Y280 in the natural cycle. The Y167 radical is detectable by EPR spectroscopy after treatment with equimolar amounts of H2O2 in the active variant W164F, but is absent in the inactive variant W272F. 4) CcO contains two proton conducting pathways, the D- and the K-pathway. Proteoliposomes of the variants H28A and D30N, mutations located at the entrance of the D-pathway, both show the identical proton pumping activity as the 4 SU-wt rec CcO (pumped H+/e- = 1). The variant N113D shows abolished proton pumping (pumped H+/e- = 0), but a relative high cytochrome c oxidation activity (63 %). G196D displays no cytochrome c oxidation and proton pumping activity. Overall, the addition or removal of a negative charge within the D-pathway such as in D124N, N131D, N113D and G196D leads to a decoupled phenotype indicating the high degree of electrostatic coupling in CcO.

Production of the human adenosine A2A receptor in Pichia pastoris, its solubilization and purification, and the selection of a specific single-chain Fv fragment by phage display (2006)

Cécile Prual

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) comprise the largest membrane protein family and play an essential role in signal transduction through the cell membrane. They are currently the targets of approximately 50 % of the pharmaceuticals on the market (Klabunde and Hessler, 2002). However, only one high-resolution GPCR structure has been determined up to now, that of bovine rhodopsin (Palczewski et al., 2000). The GPCR activation and regulation mechanisms are still unknown and other GPCR structures are thus required. MePNet (Membrane Protein Network) was a European consortium dedicated to structural studies of GPCRs. The approach was to produce 100 GPCRs in three expression systems (Escherichia coli, Pichia pastoris and Semliki Forest Virus infected mammalian cells) in order to select at each step of the process (production, solubilization, purification) the constructs that fulfilled quantity and quality (functionality) requirements for crystallization trials. In our team, we screened 38 of the 100 targets in P. pastoris. For each receptor, the clone with the highest production level was identified by dot-blot. The size and homogeneity of each receptor were then analyzed by Western-blot. The human adenosine A2A receptor showed a well-defined and pronounced single band and was thus selected for further characterization. The adenosine A2A receptor is a GPCR mainly localized in the central nervous system and, as it antagonizes dopaminergic activity, it has great potential as a drug target for the treatment of Parkinson’s disease. Functional characterization by binding assays with the specific antagonist [3H]-ZM241385 demonstrated a Bmax of 56 +/- 3 pmol/mg i.e. pmol of binder per milligram of total membrane protein, and a KD of 0.40 +/- 0.02 nM. Receptor production was then improved by lowering the induction temperature, decreasing the induction time and adding DMSO to the medium. For large-scale production, fermention reached around 300 g cells (wet weight)/L culture, which provided 43 mg of functional receptor in membranes per liter of culture. Functional solubilization was achieved with dodecyl-β-D-maltoside and the soluble yield was increased to 70-80 % of the membrane content by addition of cholesteryl hemisuccinate and increasing the ionic strength. The receptor was successfully purified via Ni-NTA and monomeric avidin chromatography in the presence of the antagonist ZM241385. This strategy produced a pure, homogeneous and stable receptor preparation with functionality demonstrated by radioligand binding assays. The total receptor yield after purification was routinely around 20 % of the membrane functional receptor content and 2 g of membranes provided 4 mg of pure receptor for crystallization trials. GPCRs are very difficult targets for crystallization, and co-crystallization with antibody fragments has been shown to be a successful method for crystallization of membrane proteins. In order to develop such a tool for the adenosine A2A receptor, a single-chain Fv (scFv) fragment specific to the purified receptor was selected by phage display. The receptor was functionally immobilized on the surface of streptavidin beads and after two rounds of selection, 6 different phages were identified several times. After production in E. coli and purification via Ni-NTA affinity chromatography, 4 out of the 6 scFv fragments were sufficiently enriched to be tested by ELISA. For the ELISA, the receptor was functionally immobilized via the biotinylation domain of the construct in a 96-well streptavidin-coated plate. The antibody fragments binding to the receptor were identified based on interaction with HRP-conjugated protein L. One scFv fragment gave a positive ELISA signal 10 fold above background and titration of the scFv fragment binding to the receptor was specific and saturable. However no complex of scFv fragment and receptor was observed on gel filtration. In order to have a more sensitive detection method, the scFv fragment was labeled with fluorescein: a complex was then observed up on gel filtration but the binding appeared to be non-specific. A pull-down assay with immobilized non-labeled scFv fragment finally confirmed the specificity of the binding, but also the low affinity of the interaction. Affinity maturation of this specific scFv fragment by a random mutagenesis and selection process should improve this parameter in order to obtain an adapted tool for co-crystallization.

Elektronentransfer zwischen Komplex III und IV der Atmungskette von Paracoccus denitrificans und Thermus thermophilus : funktionelle und kinetische Charakterisierung der Interaktionen anhand von löslichen Fragmenten (2006)

Julia Janzon

Adenosintriphosphat (ATP) als universelles Energieäquivalent der Zelle wird durch die oxidative Phosphorylierung synthetisiert, bei der Elektronen entlang des elektrochemischen Gefälles der Atmungskette über verschiedene Redoxkomplexe transferiert und durch die chemiosmotische Kopplung Protonen über die Membran gepumpt werden. Der Protonengradient wird dann von der ATP-Synthase genutzt, um ADP zu ATP zu phosphorylieren. Zentraler Redoxkomplex der Atmungskette vieler Pro- und Eukaryonten ist der bc1-Komplex, der Elektronen von Ubichinol auf Cytochrom c überträgt, von wo sie nachfolgend auf die Cytochrom c-Oxidase transferiert werden. Das mesophile Bodenbakterium Paracoccus denitrificans wird als Modellsystem für den mitochondrialen Elektronentransfer (ET) verwendet, da es eine aerobe Atmungskette exprimiert, die der mitochondrialen homolog ist, allerdings einen wesentlich einfacheren Aufbau der einzelnen Redoxkomplexe aufweist. Auch Thermus thermophilus als extrem thermophiles Bakterium bildet eine vergleichbare aerobe Atmungskette aus, wobei deren Proteine allerdings eine hohe Thermostabilität aufweisen, wodurch sie in das Interesse der Forschung gerückt sind. Ziel dieser Arbeit war die funktionelle Charakterisierung des ET zwischen Komplex III und IV der Atmungsketten von P. denitrificans und T. thermophilus, die aufgrund ihrer mesophilen und thermophilen Eigenschaften unterschiedliche Mechanismen in der Wechselwirkung ihrer Redoxproteine aufweisen. Es wurden lösliche Redoxfragmente verwendet, um anhand von Mutagenesestudien, Stopped-Flow (SF)- und Laserflash-Kinetiken (LF) unter pre-steady state-Bedingungen sowie FRET-Experimenten den ET zu untersuchen. Für die LF-Experimente wurde eine photoaktive Rutheniumverbindung kovalent an Cyt c552 gekoppelt, durch die bei Laseranregung das Häm photooxidiert und dadurch der ET von einem reduzierten Redoxpartner induziert werden kann. Die Strukturdaten des bc1/Cyt c-Cokomplexes aus Hefe zeigen, dass direkte Kontakte zwischen Cyt c1 und Cyt c durch unpolare Wechselwirkungen und eine zentrale Kation-p-Interaktion vermittelt werden. Daher wurden anhand von Sequenz- und Struktur-alignments äquivalente Aminosäurepositionen im Paracoccus Cyt c1 identifiziert, die an der Wechselwirkung zu Cyt c552 beteiligt sein könnten. Diese wurden durch gerichtete Mutagenese in ihrem Raumvolumen, ihrer Polarität oder Ladung variiert und in kinetischen Studien untersucht. Für die LF-Kinetiken sowie für die FRET-Experimente wurden Oberflächen-Cysteinmutanten des Cyt c1 bzw. c552 generiert, über deren SH-Gruppen kovalent der Rutheniumkomplex bzw. Fluorophore gekoppelt werden konnten. Die ET-Reaktion zeigt zwei Phasen in Abhängigkeit von der Ionenstärke. Bei niedrigen Ionenstärken ergeben sich Geschwindigkeitskonstanten von 109 M -1s-1 und eine geringe Ionenstärkeabhängigkeit (etwa eine effektive Ladung), wohingegen bei Ionenstärken ab 35 mM 2-3 effektive Ladungen pro Redoxpartner beteiligt sind und bimolekulare Geschwindigkeitskonstanten von 107 bis 109 M-1s-1 erhalten werden. Diese Ergebnisse deuten auf die Bildung eines Encounter-Komplexes bei niedrigen Ionenstärken hin, der ein Ensemble verschiedener Distanzen und relativer Orientierungen der Redoxpartner zueinander darstellt. Diese Annahme wurde ebenfalls durch FRET-Experimente bestätigt, durch die selbst bei niedrigen Ionenstärken keine definierten Abstände erhalten werden konnten. Die Geschwindigkeitskonstanten der bimolekularen Reaktion weisen auf einen diffusionskontrollierten Prozess hin, an dem 2 bis 3 effektive Ladungen an der elektrostatischen Annäherung der beiden Redoxpartner beteiligt sind. Diese Ergebnisse werden durch vorherige kinetische Untersuchungen und EPR-Studien des ET von Cyt c552 zum CuA-Fragment der aa3-Oxidase bekräftigt, für den die gleiche Anzahl effektiver Ladungen und die Bildung eines Encounter-Komplex gefunden wurden. Lediglich c1-Mutanten, deren variierte Aminosäuren sich direkt oberhalb der Hämspalte und in der Sequenz um bzw. innerhalb des Hämbindemotivs befinden, bewirken eine Verlangsamung der Gesamtreaktion und ein leicht verändertes Ionenstärkeverhalten, das auf eine leicht verschobene Interaktionsfläche hindeutet. Es wurde durch Sequenz- und Strukturalignments kein aromatischer Rest in direkter Nähe der entsprechenden Position im Paracoccus Cyt c1 gefunden, der wie im Hefekomplex eine stabilisierende Kation-p-Interaktion zwischen den Redoxpartnern vermittelt. Zur Untersuchung des ET zwischen Komplex III und Komplex IV aus T. thermophilus wurde die hydrophile Cytochrom c-Domäne der caa3-Oxidase in Analogie zum Paracoccus-System als lösliches Redoxfragment kloniert, heterolog exprimiert und charakterisiert. Dieses Fragment wurde in SF-Studien eingesetzt, um den ET zu seinen potentiellen Redoxpartnern Cyt cbc des bc-Komplexes und Cyt c552 zu charakterisieren. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass das ccaa3-Fragment Elektronen von beiden Redoxpartnern empfängt, wobei die ET-Reaktion mit Cyt c552 so schnell verläuft, dass sie durch SF-Techniken nur schlecht aufgelöst und lediglich eine Größenordnung der Geschwindigkeitskonstanten abgeschätzt werden kann (kon ~ 1010 M-1s-1). Die Reaktion mit Cyt cbc verläuft auch noch schnell (kon = 108-109 M-1s-1) und ist nahezu unabhängig von der Ionenstärke, was eine hydrophobe Wechselwirkung zwischen beiden Redoxpartnern bestätigt. Die Ergebnisse deuten erstmals darauf hin, dass ein ET direkt zwischen zwei Redoxproteinkomplexen (bc-Komplex und caa3-Oxidase) stattfindet, ohne dass ein Elektronenüberträger (wie z. B. Cyt c552) zwischengeschaltet ist. Um die Übertragbarkeit der Erkenntnisse, die hier über den ET an löslichen Redoxfragmenten gewonnen wurden, in einem Proteinkomplex zu verifizieren, wurde ein bc1-Komplex verwendet, in dem die für P. denitrificans einzigartige saure Cyt c1-Domäne deletiert ist. Der Komplex wurde für eine erleichterte Aufreinigung mit einem His-tag versehen, homolog exprimiert und erste Aufreinigungs- und Charakterisierungsschritte unternommen. Er soll zukünftig eingesetzt werden, um die Mutationen des löslichen c1-Fragmentes in den Komplex zu überführen und die Mutanten kinetisch mittels pre-steady state- und steady state-Techniken im Vergleich zum bc1WT-Komplex zu untersuchen, ohne dass die Effekte der Punktmutationen durch die hohe negative Ladungsdichte der sauren Domäne überlagert werden.

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