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Resistant microbes are a growing concern. It was estimated that about 33,000 of people die because of the infections caused by multidrug resistant bacteria each year in Europe (ECDC, 2018, https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/). Bacteria can acquire resistance against toxic compounds via different mechanisms and intrinsic active efflux is one of the first mechanisms deployed by bacterial cells. The membrane-localized efflux pumps catalysing this reaction, extract toxic compounds from the interior of the cell and transport these to the outside, thereby maintaining sub-lethal toxin levels in the cytoplasm, periplasm and membranes. Gram-negative three-component efflux pumps, analysed in this study, are composed of an inner membrane protein, a member of the Resistance-Nodulation cell Division (RND) superfamily, an Outer Membrane Factor (OMF) protein and a Membrane Fusion Protein (MFP) that connects the two afore mentioned components into an active efflux pump. The pumps described in this work, AcrAB-TolC and EmrAB-TolC, are drug efflux pumps belonging to the RND and MFS superfamilies, respectively, while CusCBA is an efflux pump that belongs to the RND heavy metal efflux family. Another efflux pump that was used as a model for the design of an in vitro assay for the silver ion transport studies, CopA, belongs to the P-type ATPase superfamily. All pumps analysed in this study are part of the resistance system of Escherichia coli, which is a highly clinically relevant pathogen.
In order to examine the AcrAB-TolC, CopA and CusA efflux pumps, the individual components were separately produced in E. coli, purified to monodispersity and reconstituted in large unilamellar vesicles, LUVs. Means for the optimized production and adequate conditions for efficient reconstitution were presented in this study. The activity of AcrB in LUVs was detected using fluorescence quenching of the dye 8-hydroxy-1,3,6 pyrenetrisulfonate (pyranine), which is incorporated inside the proteoliposomes and is sensitive to the pH changes in its surrounding. The inactive AcrB variant with a substitution in the proton relay network, D407N, showed no activity in proteoliposomes, which correlates with the measurements done in empty liposomes. When AcrA was co-reconstituted with AcrB D407N proteoliposomes it did not restore protein activity. To test the assembly of the AcrAB-TolC pump out of its single components, an in vitro assay was established where the complex assembly was tested with AcrAB- and TolC-containing liposomes. These experiments showed putative AcrAB-TolC formation in the presence or absence of a pump substrate, taurocholate, as well as in the presence of the pump inhibitor, MBX3132. The assembly appeared stable over time and results were invariant in the presence or absence of a pH gradient across the AcrAB-containing membrane.
After determination of the ATPase activity of the P-type ATPase, CopA, in detergent micelles, the protein was reconstituted in LUVs. Quenching of the Ag+-sensitive dye Phen Green SK (PGSK), present on the inside of the CopA-containing proteoliposomes, was observed in presence of ATP and Ag+. Under the same conditions, but in absence of Ag+-ions, quenching was reduced by 80 % after 300 seconds. No PGSK-quenching was observed in control liposomes in the presence of ATP and Ag+. The additional presence of sodium azide led to minimal reduction of the PGSK-quenching as expected since sodium azide is not an inhibitor of P-type ATPases, but the quenching rate was similar to that of the same experimental condition with control liposomes.
The RND superfamily member CusA, as part of the tripartite CusCBA efflux pump, has been proposed to sequester Ag+ or Cu+ from either the cytoplasmic or periplasmic side of the inner membrane. The periplasmic transport of silver ions was implied from an in vitro assay where the quenching of a pH sensitive dye, 9-amino-6-chloro-2-methoxyacridine (ACMA), indicates acidification of the lumen of the proteoliposomes containing CusA when an inwardly directed pH was imposed. The same experiment with the CusA D405N variant, which was previously reported to be an inactive variant, also led to ACMA quenching, although at a slightly lower rate. Under application of an inwardly directed pH and a (negative inside), CusA-containing proteoliposomes showed a strong quenching of the incorporated PGSK dye, suggesting strong Ag+ influx.
The Major Facilitator Superfamily-(MFS-) type EmrAB-TolC pump has an analogous structural setup as the RND-type AcrAB-TolC pump. To examine the efflux of one of its substrates, carbonyl - cyanide m-chlorophenylhydrazone (CCCP), a plate-based susceptibility assay was used. The presence of the EmrAB-TolC pump confers lower susceptibility levels towards CCCP in E. coli, compared to cells not expressing the pump or cells expressing only the MFS component, indicating that EmrAB-TolC extrudes CCCP.
The work done in this study opens up a path towards investigation of drug and metal resistance in vitro. The methodologies to obtain proteoliposomal samples of multicomponent efflux pumps and subsequent measurements of drug/metal ion and H+ fluxes, as well as the determination of pump assembly are crucial for the future research on pump catalysis and transport kinetics. The in vivo drug-plate assays done in this work provide initial insights for future investigations of the drug susceptibility of E. coli expressing the MFS-type tripartite efflux pumps.
The transporter associated with antigen processing-like (TAPL) acts as a lysosomal ATP-dependent polypeptide transporter with broad length selectivity. To characterize in detail its substrate specificity, a procedure for solubilization, purification and functional reconstitution of human TAPL was developed. TAPL was expressed in Sf9 insect cells with the baculovirus expression system and solubilized from crude membranes. By intensive screening of detergents, the mild non-ionic detergents digitonin and dodecylmaltoside were found to be ideal for solubilization with respect to efficiency, long term stability, and functionality of TAPL. TAPL was isolated in a two-step procedure with a yield of 500 micro g/L cell culture and, subsequently, reconstituted into proteoliposomes. The KM(pep) for the peptide RRYCfKSTEL (f refers to fluorescence label) and KM(ATP) were determined to be 10.5 ± 2.3 micro M and 97.6 ± 27.5 micro M, respectively, which are in the same range as the Michaelis-Menten constants determined in the membranes. The peptide transport activity of the reconstituted TAPL strongly depends on the lipid composition. Interestingly, the E. coli lipids are prefered over other tested natural lipids extracts. Moreover, phosphatidylcholine, the most abundant phospholipid in eukaryotic cells influenced TAPL activity in a dose dependent manner. In addition, some negatively charged lipids like DOPA and DOPS increased peptide transport activity with preference for DOPS. However, DOPE or egg PG which are also negatively charged had no effect. It seems not only the charge but also the specific head group of phospholipids that has impact on the function of TAPL. With the help of combinatorial peptide libraries containing D-amino acid residues at defined positions as well as bulky fluorescein labeled peptides, the key positions of the peptides were localized to the N- and C-terminal residues with respect to peptide transport. The C-terminal position has the strongest selectivity since modification at this position shows strongest impact on peptide transport. Additionally, positions 2 and 3 of the peptide also have weak influence on peptide selectivity. Subsequently, the residue preferences at the key positions were systematically investigated by combinatorial peptide libraries with defined residues at certain positions. At both ends, TAPL favors positively charged, aromatic, or hydrophobic residues and disfavors negatively charged residues as well as asparagine and methionine. The residue preferences at the key positions are valid for peptide substrates with different length, indicating a general rule for TAPL selectivity. Besides specific interactions of both terminal residues, electrostatic interactions are important, since peptides with positive net charge are more efficiently transported than negatively charged ones. By size exclusion chromatography (SEC) and blue native PAGE, TAPL purified in the presence of digitonin or dodecylmaltoside had an apparent molecular weight of 200 kDa which is close to the theoretical molecular mass of the TAPL homodimer (172 kDa). The purified and reconstituted TAPL showed specific ATP hydrolysis activity which can be inhibited by orthovanadate. TAPL in proteoliposomes showed 6-fold higher ATP hydrolysis than digitonin solubilized protein, indicating the phospholipids impact on TAPL function. However, no peptide substrate stimulated ATPase activity was observed. For site-specific labeling of TAPL, eight cysteines in each half transporter were replaced by alanine or valine. The TAPL cys-less mutant showed the same peptide transport activity as TAPL wt. Based on the functional TAPL cys-less mutant, seven single cysteine mutants were introduced into strategic positions. All single cysteine mutants in the TMD did not influence peptide transport, whereas the mutant L701C, which is close to the conserved H-loop motif, displayed impaired transport. TAPL orthologs Haf-4 and Haf-9 from Caenorhabditis elegans possess around 40% sequence identities with TAPL and 50% with each other. Both proteins are putative half transporters and reported to be involved in the intestinal granule formation (Bauer, 2006; Kawai et al., 2009). To further understand the physiological functions of these two proteins, they were expressed in Sf9 insect cells. Haf-4 and Haf-9 showed weak but specific ATP- and peptide-dependent peptide transport activity for the given peptide RRYCfKSTEL. Therefore, it was proposed that the physiological roles for Haf-4 and Haf-9 might be related to their peptide transport activity. Besides forming functional homodimeric complex as estimated by the peptide transport activities, both half transporter could also form heteromers which was confirmed by coimmunoprecipitation. However, the heteromers showed decreased transport activity.
In dieser Arbeit wurden die Strukturen von drei Membranproteinen mittels Einzelpartikel-Kryo‑Elektronenmikroskopie (Kryo‑EM) gelöst. Bei den Membranproteinen handelt es sich um den humanen TRP-Kanal Polycystin‑2, den sekundär-aktiven Transporter BetP aus Corynebacterium glutamicum und den Rotor-Ring der N‑Typ ATPase aus Burkholderia pseudomallei.
Kanäle sind Membranproteine, die Ionen durch eine Pore über die Membran diffundieren lassen. Durch einen präzisen, kanalabhängigen Regulationsmechanismus wird die Pore nur bei Bedarf geöffnet. TRP (transient receptor potential) Kanäle sind anhand von DNA-Sequenzvergleichen identifiziert worden und kommen ausschließlich in Eukaryonten vor. In dieser Arbeit lag der Fokus auf der Strukturbestimmung des humanen TRP Kanals Polycystin‑2 (PC‑2). PC‑2 wurde in einer Studie entdeckt, in der Patienten mit der autosomal dominanten Erbkrankheit „polyzystische Nierenerkrankung“ untersucht wurden. Patienten mit dieser Krankheit tragen eine Mutation in einem der beiden Gene PKD1 oder PKD2, welche für die Proteine Polycystin‑1 und ‑2 kodieren. In dieser Arbeit wurden verschiedene Deletionsmutanten von PC‑2 hergestellt und in das Genom menschlicher HEK293 GnTI‑ Zellen inseriert. Die Zellen, die PC‑2 bzw. die Deletionskonstrukte am stärksten synthetisierten, wurden isoliert und für die rekombinante Proteinherstellung verwendet. Die Expression von PC‑2 führte zu der Entstehung von kristalloidem endoplasmatischem Retikulum. Mutationsstudien in dieser Arbeit zeigen, dass diese morphologische Veränderung durch die Akkumulation von Membranproteinen, die mit sich selbst interagieren, begünstigt wird. Weiter ist es in dieser Arbeit gelungen, PC‑2 zu reinigen und die Struktur des Proteins mit Hilfe von Einzelpartikel Kryo-EM mit einer Auflösung von 4.6 Å zu bestimmen. Die Membrandomäne von PC‑2 ist sehr ähnlich zu den bekannten TRP Kanal Strukturen. Ein Vergleich der PC‑2 Struktur mit dem offenen und geschlossenen TRPV1 Kanal legt nahe, dass PC‑2 in seiner offenen Konformation gelöst wurde.
Der sekundär aktive Transporter BetP von C. glutamicum gehört zu der Familie der BCC- (betaine-carnitine-choline) Transporter und wird durch osmotischen Schock aktiviert. Nach seiner Aktivierung importiert BetP zwei Natriumionen und ein Glycinbetain Molekül. Durch die Akkumulierung von Glycinbetain in der Zelle steigt das osmotische Potential des Zytoplasmas, was den Wasserausstrom aus der Zelle stoppt. Viele Strukturen, die BetP in unterschiedlichen Stadien des Transportprozesses zeigen, konnten bereits mittels Röntgenkristallographie gelöst werden. Allerdings ist die N‑terminale Domäne für die Kristallisation entfernt worden und die C‑terminale Domäne, die komplett aufgelöst ist, ist an einem wichtigen Kristallkontakt beteiligt. Um strukturelle Informationen über die N‑ und C‑terminale Domäne ohne Kristallisationsartefakte zu erhalten, wurde in dieser Arbeit die Struktur von BetP mittels Einzelpartikel Kryo‑EM bestimmt. Die Struktur mit einer Auflösung von 6.8 Å zeigt BetP in einem zum Zytoplasma geöffneten Zustand. Der größte Unterschied zu allen Kristallstrukturen ist die Position der C‑terminalen α‑Helix, die um ~30° rotiert ist und dadurch deutlich enger am Protein zu liegen kommt. Da BetP in Abwesenheit von aktivierenden Stoffen analysiert wurde, wird vermutet, dass es sich bei der gelösten Struktur um den inaktiven Zustand von BetP handelt.
Rotierende ATPasen sind membrangebunden Enzymkomplexe, die bei der zellulären Energieumwandlung eine entscheidende Rolle einnehmen. Sie bestehen aus einem löslichen und einem membrangebundenen Teil. Während in dem löslichen Teil der zelluläre Energieträger Adenosintriphosphat (ATP) entweder synthetisiert oder hydrolysiert wird, baut der membrangebundene Teil entweder einen Ionengradienten auf oder nutzt die Energie eines existierenden Gradienten für die ATP Synthese. Ein wesentlicher Bestandteil des membrangebundenen Teils einer rotierenden ATPase ist der Rotor-Ring. Dieser transportiert Ionen über die Membran und rotiert dabei um seine eigene Achse. In dieser Arbeit wurde eine Studie fortgesetzt, die den Rotor-Ring der N‑Typ ATPase von B. pseudomallei mittels Kryo‑EM untersuchte und zeigte, dass der Rotor-Ring aus 17 identischen Untereinheiten aufgebaut ist. Damit hat die N‑Typ ATPase das größte Ionen-zu-ATP-Verhältnis aller bisher charakterisierten ATPasen. In dieser Arbeit wurde die c17 Stöchiometrie des N‑Typ ATPase Rotor-Rings bestätigt und die Struktur mittels Kryo‑EM bestimmt. Im besonderen Fokus lag dabei der Einfluss von Detergenzien auf die Strukturbestimmung. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass die beiden Parameter Dichte und Mizellengröße der verwendeten Detergenzien ausschlaggebend für den Erfolg der Strukturbestimmung dieses sehr kleinen Membranproteins sind.
Transport processes across the membrane are essential to ensure survival of every living cell. Therefore, the exchange of membrane impermeable molecules is mediated by specific transport proteins, which are embedded in the lipid bilayer.
One important class comprises secondary active transporters, which couple very efficiently the uphill transport of the main substrate against its concentration gradient to the downhill transport of an additional substrate. These transporters are widely distributed among all kingdoms of life and accomplish many crucial functions. One function is to counteract the deleterious effect of hyperosmotic stress in bacteria. Several members of the BCCT (betaine-choline-carnitinetransport) family of secondary transporters mediate osmostress protection by the accumulation of the compatible solute betaine or its precursor choline (Lamark et al., 1991; Peter et al., 1996; Ziegler et al., 2010). Besides osmo-dependent sodium or proton-coupled symporters, the BCCT family includes few rare representatives of osmo-independent transporters such as the substrate:product antiporter CaiT from E. coli (Jung et al., 2002; Ziegler et al., 2010).
The best-characterized member of the BCCT family is the sodium-coupled betaine transporter BetP from Corynebacterium glutamicum. BetP together with the ABCtransporter OpuA and the H+-solute symporter ProP, became a paradigm for osmoregulated osmolyte transport. Although, all three transporters were extensively studied, the general mechanism of osmoregulation is still far from being understood. Thus, one task of this thesis was to elucidate further the regulatory properties of BetP.
BetP is tightly regulated by osmotic stress and is able to increase its basal betaine uptake activity dramatically upon elevated osmolalities within one second (Peter et al., 1998a). The osmotic stress is sensed by BetP via two stimuli, one is the increase of the internal K+ concentration above a threshold of 220 mM (Rübenhagen et al., 2001), the second is related to a change in the physical state of the membrane (Maximov et al., 2014). So far, several solved crystal structures in combination with functional and computational analysis provided insights into the coupling mechanism of betaine and its co-substrate sodium (Khafizov et al., 2012; Perez et al., 2012). Despite the wealth of data, the precise regulatory mechanism of trimeric BetP is still unclear.
Verschiedene physikalische Effekte erlauben es Licht so zu führen und zu verändern, dass es Einblicke in für Menschen sonst unzugängliche Bereiche gewährt. Eines von insgesamt drei Elementen dieser Dissertationsschrift ist der Aufbau eines Multiphotonen-Mikroskops. Dieses fortschrittliche Werkzeug erweitert das zur Verfügung stehende Instrumentarium um verschiedene Analysemethoden, allen voran die 2-Photonen-Fluoreszenz-Mikroskopie. Durch geringfügige Modifikationen können auch weitere Methoden, wie beispielsweise stimulierte Raman-Streuung realisiert werden.
Insbesondere die 2-Photonen-Fluoreszenz-Mikroskopie war für das zweite Element dieser Dissertationsschrift von großer Bedeutung. In dieser Studie wurde das Bleichverhalten von Spinach bei 2-Photonen-Absorption untersucht, sowohl an frei in Lösung befindlichen als auch auf einem Träger immobilisierten Spinach-Komplexen. Die Ergebnisse zu den frei in Lösung befindlichen Spinach-Komplexen zeigen, dass die Verstärkung der Fluoreszenz von DFHBI grundsätzlich auch im Fall der 2-Photonen-Absorption eintritt. Dabei wurde ein Ausbleichen der 2-Photonen-induzierten Fluoreszenz für frei in Lösung befindliche Spinach-Komplexe erst bei außerordentlich hohen Intensitäten der Anregungsstrahlung beobachtet. Dieser Befund kann zumindest teilweise auf das Eindiffundieren fluoreszenter Spinach-Komplexe in das sehr kleine Fokalvolumen innerhalb der 2-Photonen-Anregung stattfindet zurückgeführt werden. Für immobilisierte Spinach-Komplexe konnte gezeigt werden, dass eine kontinuierliche Bildaufnahme gegenüber einer Bildaufnahme in Intervallen mit jeweils zusätzlichen Dunkelphasen zur Erholung des reversiblen Bleichens der 2-Photonen-induzierten Fluoreszenz, sowie der generelle Verzicht auf spezielle Belichtungsschemata und Methoden der Datenakquise mit keinen besonderen Nachteilen verbunden ist. Abschließend betrachtet erweist sich Spinach bei 2-Photonen-Anregung als ausgesprochen resistent gegenüber einem irreversiblem Ausbleichen des Fluoreszenzsignals.
Als drittes Element dieser Dissertationsschrift wurde die Dynamik von Chrimson, einem Kanalrhodopsin mit rot-verschobener Absorption mittels zeitaufgelöster Spektroskopie im sichtbaren Spektralbereich untersucht. Sowohl die Anregungswellenlänge als auch der pH-Wert bzw. der Protonierungszustand des Gegenions haben einen messbaren Einfluss auf die Primärreaktion. Diese verlangsamt sich, sobald der pH-Wert abgesenkt oder die Anregungswellenlänge rot-verschoben wird. Darüber hinaus führt eine Rot-Verschiebung der Anregungswellenlänge zu einer geringeren Effizienz der Isomerisation des Retinal-Chromophors. Die Primärreaktion von Chrimson entspricht dabei einem Reaktionsmodell mit einer Verzweigung des Reaktionspfades auf der Energiehyperfläche des angeregten Zustandes. Ein Reaktionspfad führt dabei durch ein lokales Minimum, welches in seiner Ausprägung stark von der elektrostatischen Umgebung des Retinal-Chromophors abhängt. Je nach ursprünglichem Protonierungszustand des Gegenions der Retinal-Schiff-Base wurden große Unterschiede hinsichtlich der beobachteten transienten Absorptionsmuster für den im Anschluss von Chrimson durchlaufenen Photozyklus gefunden. Bei pH 6,0 weist der Photozyklus von Chrimson eine insgesamt deutlich schnellere Kinetik auf, als es für den Photozyklus bei pH 9,5 beobachtet wurde. Es ist bemerkenswert, dass in elektrophysiologischen Messungen für beide Photozyklen eine Öffnung des Ionenkanals gefunden wurde. Die Kanalfunktion von Chrimson ist somit grundsätzlich nicht vom Protonierungszustand des Gegenions abhängig, wenngleich die Kinetik des Ionenkanals durchaus davon beeinflusst wird. Dies deutet auf Unterschiede in den Wechselwirkungen zwischen dem Ionenkanal und dem Gegenion der Retinal-Schiff-Base hin.
In this thesis the integral membrane protein diacylglycerol kinase (DAGK) from E.coli is investigated with solid-state NMR. The aim is to gain an insight into the enzyme’s mechanism through integration of kinetic, structural and dynamic data. The biological function of DAGK is the transfer of the γ-phosphate group from Mg*ATP to diacylglycerol (DAG) building phosphatidic acid (PA)[6] as port of the membrane-derived oligosaccharide cycle[31,34]. Surprisingly, DAGK does not share structural or sequential similarities with other kinases[12]. Typical sequence motives found in other kinases, which catalyze phosphoryl transfer reactions, are not found[13]. In its physiological form DAGK is a homo-trimer with nine transmembrane helices, three catalytic centers and a size of 39.6 kDa.
First, the set-up of a real-time 31P MAS NMR experiment is shown. This experiment allows measuring in real-time the simultaneous ATP hydrolysis in the aqueous phase and lipid substrate phos-phorylation in the membrane phase with atomic resolution under magic angle spinning[56]. After fast transfer of the sample into the NMR spectrometer the enzymatic reaction is started with a temperature jump. This approach of real-time MAS NMR in a dual-phase system was demonstrated for the lipid substrate analogs dioleoyl- (DOG) and dibutyrylglycerol (DBG), with a C8 and C4 aliphatic chain, respectively. The combination of 31P direct and cross polarization functions as a dynamic filter. In the 31P direct polarized experiment nuclei in both phases are detected, while in the 31P cross polar-ized experiment, only nuclei in the membrane phase are detected. Rates for substrate turnover, i.e. degradation of γP-, βP, αP-ATP and build-up of βP-, αP-ADP, free phosphate as side reaction, and PA are obtained, which reveal a Michaelis-Menten behavior with regard to Mg*ATP and DBG. Here Mg*ATP and DBG follow a random-equilibrium model, where every substrate can bind indepen-dently from the other substrate. Analyses of the peak integrals from educts and products of the enzymatic reaction, revealed the stoichiometry of the reaction: 1.5 ATP molecules are used to phos-phorylate one DBG molecule. The excess of ATP is attributed to the basal ATPase activity. Further-more, experiments with ATPγS, usually regarded as a non-hydrolysable ATP-analog, where carried out. Surprisingly, DAGK hydrolyzes ATPγS and also transfers the thio-phosphate group to the lipid acceptor DBG, which points to a certain degree of plasticity in the active center. A phosphorylated enzyme intermediate was not detected. These results suggest the building of a ternary complex of Mg*ATP, DBG and DAGK performing a direct-phosphoryl transfer reaction, without passing through a phosphorylated enzyme intermediate. Experiments with the transition state analog ortho-vanadate (Vi) showed a decoupling of the ATP hydrolysis activity from lipid substrate phosphorylation. This indicates a specific transfer site for the γ-phosphate group from ATP to DAG, which can be blocked by Vi.
A general disadvantage of NMR spectroscopy compared to other spectroscopic methods is its inherent low sensitivity. One possible starting point for the improvement of signal-to-noise per unit time is the reduction of the spin-lattice relaxation time of protons[209]. Usually 95 % of the experi-mental time is required for the relaxation of the 1H to equilibrium. The addition of paramagnetic species can be used to reduce the 1H T1[233]. In a comprehensive study four different paramagnetic agents were tested: Cu2+-EDTA, Cu2+-EDTA-tag, Gd3+-TTAHA and Gd3+-DOTA. The titration of these paramagnetic complexes showed the principle feasibility of this approach, but differences between the tested species exist. The most promising complex is Gd3+-DOTA which, at a concentration of 2 mM, causes a 10-time improvement of signal-to-noise ratio per unit time. This allowed measuring 2D 13C-13C correlation spectra of proteoliposomes in one tenth of the usual required experimental time (i.e. 10 hours vs. 4 days) with good signal-to-noise.
For the investigation of structural or dynamic changes in the protein upon substrate interaction with MAS NMR, the spectral properties CP efficiency and resolution of the DAGK in liposomes needed to be improved. The most critical step during sample preparation is the reconstitution of the membrane protein from detergent micelles into a membrane of synthetic lipids under detergent removal. For this procedure the important criteria are enzymatic activity, measured in a coupled ATPase assay[55], and homogeneity of the proteoliposomes, which was tested e.g. on a discontinuous sucrose step gradient. Therefore an extensive study was carried out, in which different detergents, lipids and lipid mixtures, techniques for detergent removal and different protein-to-lipid ratios were tested. A direct correlation between high ATPase activity and good resolution was not found. Moreover, active DAGK in a mixture of DMPC and cholesterol, which emulates the membrane features of a membrane containing DAG, showed the best CP efficiency and resolution.
The assignment of the protein backbone and amino acid side chains the first mandatory step towards the investigation of structural and dynamical features influencing and defining the enzymatic mechanism by MAS NMR. As the assignment procedure is very time consuming for a total protein, a special labeling scheme for DAGK was developed, which allows assigning most of the protein areas presumably involved in enzyme catalysis. The assignment of DAGK with solution NMR[132] was not transferable to the MAS NMR spectra. Most important for the assignment process were the unique pairs[335], two consecutive amino acids which only appear once in the amino acid sequence. These unique pairs served as anchor points. Five different multinuclear MAS NMR experiments (DARR, NCO, NCA, NCACX, NCOCX) were required for the sequential assignment. It was possible to assign 35 % of the total amino acid sequence with one sample and 8 experiments acquired at 850 MHz. The secondary structure analysis showed subtle differences to the DAGK assignment with solution NMR[132], which can be attributed to the different environment in lipid bilayers and detergent micelles.
Data about structural and dynamical changes under substrate interaction can reveal details about the enzymatic mechanism. Therefore changes in chemical shift in 2D heteronuclear correlation experiments in the apo-state and under substrate saturated conditions with the substrates Mg*AMP-PNP, a non-hydrolysable ATP-analog, DOG, a mixture of Mg*AMP-PNP and DOG as well as inhibited by Vi were recorded. The most significant peak changes were observed at the interface membrane-cytoplasm as well as the the N-terminal amphipathic helix. The residues revealing chemical shift perturbations correlate with conserved residues or such residues, for which importance for catalysis and/or folding could be shown in mutation studies[8]. Especially noticeable were the changes at the amino acids Asn 72, Lys 64, His 87, Tyr 86 and Asp 95.
Beside changes of the chemical shift, changes of line width or signal doubling were observable. These changes can point to a correlation with dynamic reorientations in the μs-ms time regime, which are most relevant for enzymatic processes. The protein backbone dynamics in the apo-state as well as saturated with the substrates or inhibited with Vi were investigated with a 15N-CODEX experiment, which is based on the reorientation of the CSA tensor upon dynamical changes[350]. Specific effects of the different substrates or analogs on the protein backbone dynamic were revealed complementing the structural data and the chemical shift perturbation experiments.
Infections with multidrug resistant bacterial strains like Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa or Acinetobacter baumanii that can accumulate resistance mechanisms against different groups of drugs cause increasing problems for the health care system. Multidrug efflux pumps are able to transport different classes of substances, providing a basic resistance to different antibiotics. Especially when they are overexpressed they can keep bacterial cells alive under antibiotic pressure unless other high level resistance mechanisms like expression of β-lactamases are established. One example for a clinically relevant multidrug efflux pump is the AcrAB/TolC tripartite system of E. coli, that transports a variety of different substrates, including besides antibiotics dyes, detergents, bile salts and organic compounds from the periplasm or the inner membrane out of the cell. AcrB is the inner membrane component of the protein complex that determines not only the substrate specificity of the tripartite system but energises the transport through the whole system process via proton transduction as well. TolC is the outer membrane spanning protein that forms a pore in the outer membrane enabling the system to transport drugs over the latter out of the cell. The periplasmic membrane fusion protein AcrA connects AcrB and TolC in the periplasm completing the channel from the periplasm, respective the inner membrane to the extracellular space. AcrB assembles as trimers, in asymmetric crystal structures each of the protomers adapts a different conformation designated L(oose), T(ight) and O(pen). In the protomers tunnels open up and collaps in different conformations. In the L protomer a periplasmic cleft opens up that can initially bind substrates to the periplasmic part of AcrB. In the T conformation the deep binding pocket opens that is assumed to bind substrates tightly that were bound to the access pocket before. As well in the T conformation a second pathway leading to the deep binding pocket opens that can guide substrates from a groove between transmembrane helices TM7, TM8 and TM9, the TM8 groove, that is connected with socalled tunnel 1 that ends in the deep binding pocket. In the O conformation a new tunnel opens that connects the collapsing deep binding pocket with the periplasmic space, respective the channel through the periplasmic space formed from AcrA and TolC. Substrates were cocrystallised in access and deep binding pocket verifying their role in substrate transport. In the TM8 groove in high resolution crystal structures DDM molecules were cocrystallised in L and T conformation, indicating that the AcrB substrate DDM may utilise this entrance to the deep binding pocket. The asymmetry observed in the AcrB trimers trongly suggests a peristaltic pump mechanism. The functional rotation cycle demands communication between the subunits and tight control of substrate load of protomers during the transport to optimise the ration between protons that are transduced and substrates transported. Indeed it was shown that AcrB transport mechanism is positively cooperative for some β-lactam substrates. For the communication between the subunits it was assumed that ionic interaction between ion pairs established between charged amino acids at the interfaces of protomers in different conformations are of special importance. Thus the amino acids engaged in ionic interactions, respective ion pairs D73-K131, E130-K110, D174-K110, R168, R259-E734 were substituted with non-charged amino acids pairwise and phenotypes were determined in plate dilution assays and MIC experiments. No evidence for a general, substrate independent, reduction of AcrB activity, that would be expected when the ionic residues are of special importance for AcrB function, could be found with the methods applied. Substitutions were not only combined pairwise according to the putative ion pairs but as well in combinations of R168A with D174N, E130Q and K131M. AcrB activity is reduced for the variant R168A_D174N significantly, activity decreases further for quadruple variant E130Q_K131M_ R168A_D174N. Because the reduced activity is only observed in this combination of substitutions the phenotype must result from accumulation of small effects of the single substitutions. R168A may destabilise the protomer interfaces, as its side chain is oriented in direction to the neighbouring protomer at all interfaces, enhancing substratespecific effects of substitutions E130Q, K131M, D174N that are not in all conformations oriented towards the neighbouring protomer but as well along the substrate transport pathway. Further investigations to figure out the details of the effects observed were not conducted because fluctuating expression of the variants hindered experimental procedures.
In another approach TM8 was in focus of the interest. As mentioned above it is a possible substrate entrance in the inner membrane. The linker between TM8 and the periplasmic PC2 subdomain undergoes a coil-to-helix transition when AcrB cycles through L, T and O conformations. Linking the transmembrane part of AcrB that provides the energy for the transport process via proton transduction with the periplasmic part harbouring the major part of the substrate pathway assignes TM8 and the periplasmic linker (859-876) an important role in the function of AcrB. Thus it was investigated with an alanine-scan of residues 859 to 884 and G/P respective P/G exchange followed by phenotype characterisation in growth curve and plate dilution assays of selected variants. In the phenotype determinations none of the variants, except G861P that seems to cause massive sterical restriction in an α-helical region, displayed a general, substrate independent decrease of AcrB activity. Thus it is concluded that the individual properties of amino acids in TM8 and the periplasmic linker are not of general importance for the mechanism of AcrB. The substitution of individual amino acids had impact on uptake of different substrates in plate dilution assays in a substrate dependent manner. The uptake of some substrates, like erythromycin or chloramphenicol is more affected than that of others with rhodamine 6G resistance being only reduced for the G861P variant. A relation between the PSA of substrates and reduced activity of AcrB was observed. in Substrates with higher PSA values are more affected by substitutions in TM8 or periplasmic linker, resulting in the conclusion that substrates with higher PSA are more likely to be taken up via the TM8 groove/tunnel 1 pathway than those with lower PSA values.
The development of resistance to multiple drugs is a major problem in treatment of number of infectious diseases and cancer. The phenomenon of multidrug resistance (MDR) is based on the synergetic interplay of a number of mechanisms such as target inactivation, target alteration, prevention of drug influx as well as active extrusion of drugs from the cell. The latter is mediated by over-expression of multidrug efflux pumps. The first discovered and the best characterized until now the human MDR transporter is P-glycoprotein. It is a member of the ATP binding cassette (ABC) superfamily and acts as an active transporter for a variety of anticancer agents using the energy released by ATP hydrolysis. The closest structure and functional homologue of P-glycoprotein found in bacteria is LmrA from Lactococcus lactis. The major goals of this work are to establish the selective isotope labelling of LmrA in Lactococcus lactis, to optimize LmrA sample preparation for solid-state NMR, and finally to perform first solidstate NMR investigations on LmrA shedding light on its catalytic cycle and substrate binding. For a long time the solid-state NMR applications to biological science has been limited to investigation of small molecules mostly. Recently, the solid-state NMR methods have shown potential for structuraland non-perturbing, site directed functional studies of large membrane proteins as well as ligands bound to them. However, to our knowledge neither selective isotope amino acid labelling of any ABC transporter, nor NMR investigations on full-length ABC transporter have been reported to date. Solidstate NMR experiments on a membrane protein require reconstitution of purified proteins into a membrane environment at a high density and either isotopic enrichment of the protein or bound drugs or inhibitors. Therefore, the large quantities of LmrA reconstituted at a high density in lipid membranes, sufficient for advanced NMR studies have been produced and its functional state in reconstituted form has been assessed. In the next step, a procedure for cost effective selective amino acids isotope labelling of LmrA in Lactococcus lactis has been established. Using this protocol deuterium alanine labelled LmrA reconstituted into E. coli liposomes has been prepared. Deuterium NMR has been used extensively to assess the proteins dynamics in past. However, it has never been applied to ABC transporter. Here, we report 2H NMR on selective alanine isotope labelled LmrA which has been used to shed light on the dynamics changes in the protein occurred under AMP-PNP, non-hydrolysable ATP analogue, binding and in ATP/ADP-Vanadate trapped state. It has been found that the major conformation changes affecting the protein motional characteristics occur in the ATP binding domains but not in the transmembrane domains. Additionally, the binding of several substrates to LmrA has been studied by fluorescence spectroscopy as well as by 19F and 31P solid-state NMR. The binding constants for several LmrA substrates have been obtained by fitting the concentration dependant tryptophan intrinsic fluorescence quenching curves. Based on the fluorescence studies and solid-state NMR data, the conformation changes in LmrA under substrate binding have been discussed. In addition, the preferable location of nine LmrA and P-glycoprotein substrates within the model membrane has been studied via 1H-MAS-NOESY-NMR. The results have been interpreted with respect to LmrA and P-glycoprotein binding site accessibility from the membrane interface region.
Proteorhodopsin (PR) originally isolated from uncultivated γ-Proteobacterium as a result of biodiversity screens, is highly abundant ocean wide. PR, a Type I retinal binding protein with 26% sequence identity, is a bacterial homologue of Bacteriorhodopsin (BR). The members within this family share about 78% of sequence identity and display a 40 nm difference in the absorption spectra. This property of the PR family members provides an excellent model system for understanding the mechanism of spectral tuning. Functionally PR is a photoactive proton pump and is suggested to exhibit a pH dependent vectorality of proton transfer. This raises questions about its potential role as pH dependent regulator. The abundance of PR in huge numbers within the cell, its widespread distribution ocean wide at different depths hints towards the involvement of PR in utilization of solar energy, energy metabolism and carbon recycling in the Sea. Contrary to BR, which is known to be a natural 2D crystal, no such information is available for PR til date. Neither its functional mechanism nor its 3D structure has been resolved so far. This PhD project is an attempt to gain a deeper insight so as to understand structural and functional characterization of PR. The approach combines the potentials of 2D crystallography, Atomic Force Microscopy and Solid State NMR techniques for characterization of this protein. Wide range of crystalline conditions was obtained as a result of 2D crystallization screens. This hints towards dominant protein protein interactions. Considering the high number of PR molecules reported per cell, it is likely that driven by such interactions, the protein has a native dense packing in the environment. The projection map represented low resolution of these crystals but suggested a donut shape oligomeric arrangement of protein in a hexagonal lattice with unit cell size of 87Å*87Å. Preliminary FTIR measurements indicated that the crystalline environment does not obstruct the photocycle of PR and K as well as M intermediate states could be identified. Single molecule force spectroscopy and atomic force microscopy on these 2D crystals was used to probe further information about the oligomeric state and nature of unfolding. The data revealed that protein predominantly exists as hexamers in crystalline as well as densely reconstituted regions but a small percentage of pentamers is also observed. The unfolding mechanism was similar to the other relatively well-characterized members of rhodopsin family. A good correlation of the atomic force microscopy and the electron microscopy data was achieved. Solid State NMR of the isotopically labeled 2D crystalline preparations using uniformly and selectively labeling schemes, allowed to obtain high quality SSNMR spectra with typical 15N line width in the range of 0.6-1.2 ppm. The measured 15N chemical shift value of the Schiff base in the 2D crystalline form was observed to be similar to the Schiff base chemical shift values for the functionally active reconstituted samples. This provides an indirect evidence for the active functionality of the protein and hence the folding. The first 15N assignment has been achieved for the Tryptophan with the help of Rotational Echo Double Resonance experiments. The 2D Cross Polarization Lee Goldberg measurements reflect the dynamic state of the protein inspite of restricted mobility in the crystalline state. The behavior of lipids as measured by 31P from the lipid head group showed that the lipids are not tightly bound to the protein but behave more like the lipid bilayer. The 13C-13C homonulear correlation experiments with optimized mixing time based on build up curve analysis, suggest that it is possible to observe individual resonances as seen in case of glutamic acid. The signal to noise was good enough to record a decent spectrum in a feasible period. The selective unlabeling is an efficient method for reduction in the spectral overlap. However, more efficient labeling schemes are required for further characterization. The present spectral resolution is good for individual amino acid investigation but for uniformly labeled samples, further improvement is required.
Investigation of co-translational protein folding using cryo-EM and solid-state NMR enhanced by DNP
(2020)
Die zelluläre Proteinbiosynthese findet am Peptidyltransferase-Zentrum innerhalb der großen ribosomalen Untereinheit statt. Die neu synthetisierte Polypeptidkette passiert den ribosomalen Exit-Tunnel, der 80-100 Å lang und 10-20 Å breit ist. Proteinfaltung findet kotranslational statt, während die Peptidkette durch den ribosomalen Tunnel geschleust wird. Zu welchem Ausmaß die Proteine ihre native Struktur noch am Ribosom gebunden annehmen, steht im Fokus aktueller Studien. Verschiedene Methoden, die naszierende Proteinkette am Ribosom zu arretieren und die Faltung des Proteins untersuchen zu können, wurden entwickelt. Zur Herstellung von Ribosom naszierenden Proteinkomplexen (RNCs) in vivo werden Arrestierungspeptide (APs) verwendet. Ein oft genutztes AP ist die 17 Aminosäuren lange SecM Sequenz des E. coli Sekretionsmonitors, das C-Terminal an das zu untersuchende Protein kloniert werden kann und dadurch die Peptidkette am Ribosom behält. RNCs wurden mittels verschiedener Methoden untersucht, einschließlich Proteolyse-Experimenten, enzymatischen Aktivitätsmessungen, FRET, Cryo-EM und NMR-Spektroskopie. Alle Methoden zeigten auf, dass sich die Proteine kotranslational falten und auch am Ribosom eine funktionale Struktur annehmen können. Außerdem konnte eine Peptidkette eine α-Helix innerhalb des Ribosoms ausbilden. Ebenso wurden nicht-native kompakte Strukturen innerhalb der Vestibule detektiert.
Die Translation ist ein nicht-uniformer Prozess und der genetische Code degeneriert mit bis zu sechs Codons, die eine einzelne Aminosäure kodieren. Die Verteilung dieser synonymen Codons ist nicht zufällig und sie werden mit verschiedenen Frequenzen innerhalb eines ORFs verwendet. Codons mit einer höheren tRNA Häufigkeit werden schneller eingebaut als Codons, die seltener verwendet werden. Diese seltenen Codons sind häufig zwischen Proteindomänen oder Sekundärstrukturelementen platziert und könnten daher zur Separierung von Faltungsevents dienen. Dass der Austausch von synonymen Codons nicht ohne Folgen ist, zeigten verschiedene Studien. Buhr et al. (2016) zeigte, dass der synonyme Austausch die Translationsgeschwindigkeit, aber auch die Proteinkonformation des bovinen Augenlinsenproteins γB crystallin (GBC) beeinflusst. Während die unmodifizierte Gensequenz aus B. taurus in E. coli langsamer translatiert wurde und zu einem vollständig reduzierten GBC Protein (U) führte, wurde die harmonisierte Genvariante, die der Codon-Verwendung in E. coli angepasst war, schneller exprimiert und resultierte in einem teilweise oxidierten GBC Protein (H). Dieser Befund war der Ausgangspunkt für diese Doktorarbeit.
Die gemessenen Oxidationsunterschiede basieren auf der unterschiedlichen Translationsgeschwindigkeit der beiden Gensequenzen. Die N-terminale Domäne (NTD) des Zweidomänen-Proteins GBC enthält sechs der insgesamt sieben Cysteinreste. Nur in dieser Domäne wurde Oxidation detektiert und die drei Cysteine Cys18, Cys22 und Cys78 bilden eine Ansammlung mit einem Abstand von 5.4-6.4 Å. Um zu untersuchen, ob die Unterschiede bereits nach der Translation der NTD ausgebildet werden, wurde ein Ein-Domänen-Konstrukt hergestellt. Dieses Konstrukt beinhaltete die Aminosäuren 1-82, aber nicht den Peptidlinker, der beide Domänen verbindet. Allerdings wurden bei der Translation der ersten 70 Aminosäuren die meisten Translationspausen detektiert. Das 2D 1H-15N HSQC wies anhand der unterschiedlichen chemischen Verschiebung der Signale auf eine gefaltete Proteinstruktur hin. Daher konnte sich die NTD ohne Beteiligung der CTD eigenständig falten. Zugabe von DTT zu beiden Proteinvarianten U und H führte zu keinem messbaren Effekt. Im Gegensatz zu dem Volllängen-Protein, in dem die Variante H teilweise oxidiert war, war die NTD der Variante H vollständig reduziert.
Zusätzlich sollte geklärt werden, ob auch mögliche Disulfidbrücken im Inneren des Ribosoms ausgebildet werden können. Dann könnte in beiden Genvarianten eine anfängliche Disulfidbrücke ausgebildet werden und durch die unterschiedliche Translationsgeschwindigkeit die Disulfidbrücke in der langsamen Genvariante im E. coli Zytosol reduziert werden, während diese in der schneller translatierten Variante von der CTD geschützt wird. Um zu untersuchen, ob in der Tat Disulfidbrücken im ribosomalen Tunnel ausgebildet werden können, wurden GBC-Fragmente mittels der SecM Sequenz an das Ribosom arretiert und diese RNCs mittels theoretischer Simulation, Festkörper-NMR, Massenspektrometrie und Cryo-EM gemessen.
Theoretische Simulation mittels flexible-mecanno zeigten, dass der ribosomale Tunnel groß genug für die Ausbildung verschiedenster Disulfidbrücken ist. In einem U32SecM Konstrukt, das vier Cysteine und die SecM Sequenz beinhaltet, konnten alle theoretisch möglichen Disulfidbrücken gebildet werden.
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