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NMR-spektroskopische Methodenentwicklung an RNA und strukturelle Charakterisierung des transkriptionellen Adenin-RNA-Schalters
(2012)
- Die Untersuchung von RNA mittels NMR-Spektroskopie hat in den letzten Jahren an Bedeutung gewonnen, weil die Zahl der neu entdeckten RNA-Funktionen, wie z.B. RNA-Schalter in Bakterien, stark gestiegen ist. Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, mithilfe der NMR-Spektroskopie einen Beitrag zum besseren Verständnis der biochemischen Prozesse, in die RNA-Moleküle involviert sein können, zu leisten. Im ersten Teil dieser Arbeit (Kapitel 2, 3 und 4) werden zum einen die Entwicklung neuer Methoden für die RNA-Strukturbestimmung vorgestellt und zum anderen die Leistungsfähigkeit der modernen NMR-spektroskopischen Strukturaufklärung demonstriert. Im zweiten Teil dieser Arbeit (Kapitel 5) wird die NMR-Spektroskopie zur Untersuchung der RNA-Schalter-Funktion eingesetzt. Die biologische Funktion von RNA oder Proteinen setzt oftmals eine dynamische Struktur voraus und involviert Konformationsänderungen infolge biochemischer Signalweiterleitung. Für die Charakterisierung solcher Prozesse eignet sich die NMR-Spektroskopie insbesondere gut, weil sie in Lösung unter verschiedenen Reaktionsbedingungen angewandt wer-den kann. Durch den direkten NMR-spektroskopischen Nachweis von Basenpaarungen können wichtige strukturelle Eigenschaften (Faltung, Strukturhomogenität und Dynamik) entschlüsselt und in einen Zusammenhang mit der Funktion gebracht werden. Im Folgenden werden die einzelnen Kapitel vorgestellt. Nachdem das erste Kapitel eine allgemeine Einleitung in die NMR-Spektroskopie, RNA-Struktur und Funktion der RNA-Schalter darstellt, folgt im Kapitel 2 die Einführung einer neuen Methode, die eine quantitative Bestimmung der Torsionswinkel alpha und zeta in RNA/DNA mittels NMR-Spektroskopie ermöglicht (Abb. 1). Sie basiert auf der Wechselwirkung zwischen dem CH-Dipol und der 31P-CSA, die von der relativen Orientierung abhängig ist. Die Methode wurde für die CH- und CH2-Gruppen in Form von zwei Pulssequenzen (2D- und 3D-G-HCP) zur Messung von insgesamt fünf kreuz-korrelierten Relaxationsraten entlang des RNA/DNA-Rückgrats optimiert. Die Funktionsfähigkeit der Methode wurde zunächst an der 14mer cUUCGg-Tetraloop RNA getestet und zur Bestimmung der Torsionswinkel alpha und zeta genutzt. Die Ergebnisse flossen in die Strukturrechnung der 14mer RNA, die im Kapitel 3 vorgestellt wird, mit ein. Des Weiteren gelang es die Anwendbarkeit der Experimente an einer größeren 27mer RNA zu demonstrieren. Die neue Methode ist deswegen von Bedeutung, weil die Winkel alpha und zeta nicht über 3J-Kopplungskonstanten gemessen werden können. (Nozinovic, S., Richter, C., Rinnenthal, J., Fürtig, B., Duchardt-Ferner, E., Weigand, J. E., Schwalbe, H. (2010), J. Am. Chem. Soc. 132, 10318-10329.) Im Kapitel 3 wird die NMR-spektroskopische Bestimmung der Struktur einer Model-RNA, der 14mer cUUCGg-Tetraloop RNA, vorgestellt. Die Strukturrechung wurde mit verschiedenen NMR-Datensätzen, die in der Arbeitsgruppe einschließlich dieser Doktorarbeit gesammelt wurden, durchgeführt. Zusammen mit den Ergebnissen aus dem Kapitel 2 konnte eine sehr präzise Struktur mit einem RMSD von 0,37 Å (20 Strukturen) in sehr guter Übereinstimmung mit experimentellen Daten ermittelt werden. Die gerechnete Struktur repräsentiert eine der gegenwärtig genauesten und umfassendsten Strukturbestimmungen einer RNA, bei der jeder Torsionswinkel quantitativ bestimmt wurde. Einen besonderen Höhepunkt stellt die strukturelle Analyse der 2’OH-Gruppen dar, die im anschließenden Kapitel 4 weiter vertieft wurde. (Nozinovic, S., Fürtig, B., Jonker, H. R. A., Richter, C., Schwalbe, H. (2010), Nucleic Acids Res. 38, 683-694) Über Jahre war bekannt, dass die Größe der 1J(C1’,H1’)- und 1J(C2’,H2’)-Kopplungskonstanten innerhalb der Ribonukleotide von der lokalen Struktur des Zuckers und der Orientierung der Nukleobase beeinflusst wird. In dieser Arbeit (Kapitel 4) wurde zum ersten Mal ein systematischer Vergleich zwischen NMR-Messungen und DFT-Rechnungen durchgeführt, der eine eindeutige Zuordnung der Hauptkonformationen des Zuckers (C3’- oder C2’-endo) und der Nukleobase (anti oder syn) anhand der 1J(C,H)-Kopplungskonstanten erlaubt. Die beschriebene Methode wurde an einer größeren 27mer RNA erfolgreich erprobt. Weiterhin wurde erstmalig entdeckt, dass zudem die Orientierung der 2’OH-Gruppe einen signifikanten Einfluss auf die 1J(C,H)-Kopplungen hat (Abb. 3). Mithilfe von NMR-Messungen und DFT-Rechnungen konnte aus 1J(C,H)-Kopplungskonstanten die Orientierung von allen 2’OH-Gruppen in der 14mer cUUCGg-Tetraloop RNA bestimmt werden. Die Methode hat den großen Vorteil, dass 2’OH-Gruppen, die aufgrund des schnellen Austauschs mit Wasser oder D2O keine NMR-Signale liefern, analysiert werden kön-nen. (Nozinovic, S., Gupta, P., Fürtig, B., Richter, C., Tüllmann, S., Duchardt-Ferner, E., Holthausen, M. C., Schwalbe, H. (2011), Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 50, 5397-5400) Im Kapitel 5 wird eine NMR-spektroskopische Untersuchung an der Aptamerdomäne des Adenin-bindenden RNA-Schalters (pbuE) vorgestellt. Im Fokus der Forschung stand die Frage: Welchen Einfluss hat die Länge der P1-Helix auf die Struktur und die Ligandbindung der freien Aptamer-domäne? Durch den Vergleich von zwei Konstrukten mit unterschiedlich langer P1-Helix war es möglich, intrinsische Scherkräfte, die durch die Ausbildung der P1-Helix in der freien Aptamerdomäne entstehen, festzustellen. Es hat sich im Konstrukt mit der verlängerten P1-Helix gezeigt, dass diese zur Destabilisierung der P3-Helix und des Schlaufenkontakts führen. Diese strukturellen Änderungen haben außerdem zur Folge, dass die Bindungsstärke des Liganden reduziert wird. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass ein strukturelles Gleichgewicht zwischen Sekundärstrukturelementen die tertiäre Faltung beeinflusst und die Funktion moduliert. (Nozinovic, S., Reining, A., Noeske, J., Wöhnert, J., Schwalbe, H. (2011), in Vorbereitung)
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Methoden zur Konformationsbestimmung an Peptiden und Nukleinsäuren mittels skalarer und dipolarer Kopplungen
(2012)
- Die in dieser Arbeit durchgeführten Untersuchungen an GXG Modellpeptiden konnten eindeutig zeigen, dass diese Peptide, auch ohne das Vorhandensein von langreichweitigen Wechselwirkungen, bestimmte Sekundärstrukturen präferieren. Ein Teil der beobachteten, auftretenden Strukturmotive lässt sich hierbei über den sterischen Anspruch der Seitenkette erklären, ein anderer Teil über die Ladung der Seitenkette. In Kombination mit anderen Spektroskopischen Methoden konnten zehn dieser Peptide genauestens untersucht werden. Hierbei zeigte sich, dass diese Peptide nicht nur die favorisierten Regionen des Ramachandran-Diagramms besetzen. Ein Vergleich mit dem Vorkommen bestimmter Aminosäuren, beispielsweise in loop Regionen von Proteinen, zeigt dass die Sequenz dieser loops nicht zufällig ist. Tatsächlich besitzt ein Teil der Aminosäuren, die besonders häufig an bestimmten loop Positionen vorkommen, bereits die intrinsische Vorliebe, die notwendige Konformation einzunehmen. Diese Aminosäuren und die umgebenden loops sind somit eventuell nicht nur das simple Verbindungsglied zwischen zwei Sekundärstrukturen, sondern kommen selbst als Ausgangspunkte für Peptid- bzw. Proteinfaltung in Frage. Ein weiteres Augenmerk der Arbeit lag auf der Messung von skalaren und dipolaren Kopplungen an isotopenmarkierter RNA. Es wurden vier Pulssequenzen entwickelt, die es ermöglichen, 1J skalare bzw. dipolare Kopplungen in der Zuckerregion von 13C- markierter RNA mit hoher Präzision zu messen. Die entwickelten J-modulierten Experimente ermöglichen die Messung von 1J(H2’C2’), 1J(C1’C2’) sowie 1J(C2’C3’) Kopplungen selbst für größere RNA Moleküle. Die Detektion erfolgt hierbei auf den C1’H1’ Signalen, die Zuordnung der Kerne, deren Kopplung gemessen wird, ist nicht einmal erforderlich. Die Anwendbarkeit konnte für verschiedene Systeme mit 14 bis 70 Nukleotiden demonstriert werden. Die erreichte Präzision ermöglichte es außerdem auch sehr kleine Effekte, wie beispielsweise die Ausrichtung von RNA im Magnetfeld zu detektieren. Diese Arbeit zeigt außerdem zwei Beispiele für die gezielte Modifikation, um Lanthanid Bindungsstellen einführen zu können. Auf chemischen und biochemischen Weg konnte isotopenmarkierte, in vitro transkribierte RNA modifiziert werden. Die Ergebnisse zeigen eindeutig eine Bindung von Lanthanid-Ionen an die modifizierte RNA. Die auftretenden, eher kleinen Effekte, sind vermutlich auf die noch zu hohe Flexibilität der eingeführten Modifikationen. Vor allem bei der chemischen Modifikation besteht hier noch Potential zur Optimierung, nachdem die generelle Anwendbarkeit der Methode demonstriert wurde. Der letzte Teil der Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit der Analyse von Kopplungsmustern zur Analyse und zum Vergleichen von Naturstoffen. Hier konnten aus einer Reihe von Derivaten eindeutig die identifiziert werden, die verglichen mit der Ausgangsstruktur, die gleiche Konformation besitzen. Die gewonnenen Ergebnisse decken sich hier mit durchgeführten biologischen Tests, die ebenfalls dasselbe Derivat als aktiv identifizieren konnten, was klar für eine Struktur-Aktivitäts-Beziehung spricht. In der vorliegenden Arbeit werden Methoden und Anwendungen gezeigt, um skalare und dipolare Kopplungen im Bereich von Peptiden, Nukleinsäuren und kleinen Molekülen zu nutzen. Die durchgeführten Arbeiten reichen dabei von der speziellen Probenpräparation zur Messung von dipolaren Kopplungen bis hin zur Entwicklung neuer NMR-spektroskopischer Methoden zur Messung von Kopplungen mit höherer Präzision und an größeren Systemen als bisher.
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Dimerisierung der humanen 5-Lipoxygenase
(2012)
- Die 5-Lipoxygenase (5-LO) ist eines der Schlüsselenzyme der Leukotrienbiosynthese. Sie katalysiert zunächst die Umsetzung der freigesetzten Arachidonsäure(AA) zu 5-Hydroperoxyeicosatetraensäure (5-HpETE), in einem zweiten Reaktionsschritt wandelt sie diese in Leukotrien A4 (LTA4) um. Leukotriene sind potente Entzündungsmediatoren und spielen eine wichtige Rolle bei entzündlichen und allergischen Reaktionen. Außerdem wird die Beteiligung an verschiedenen Krebsarten kontrovers diskutiert. Sie besteht aus 673AS, ist 78 kDa schwer und gliedert sich wie alle bisher bekannten Lipoxygenasen in eine N-terminale C2-ähnliche, regulatorische Domäne(AS 1–114) (C2ld), die für die Membran- und Calciumbindung sowie die Interaktion mit dem Coactosin-like Protein (CLP) verantwortlich ist, und in eine C-terminale, katalytische Domäne (AS 121–673), die das Nicht-Häm-gebundene Eisen im aktiven Zentrum trägt. Ein weiteres Strukturmerkmal sind zwei ATP-Bindungsregionen, eine befindet sich in der C2ld (AS 73–83), die andere auf der katalytischen Domäne (AS 193–209), das molare Verhältnis von 5-LO zu ATP konnte dabei auf 1:1 festgelegt werden [167]. Bereits 1982 wurde in einer Veröffentlichung von Parker et al. beschrieben, dass 5-LO aus Rattenzellen in Gegenwart von Calcium auf einer Gelfiltration dimerisieren kann [204], 2008 schließlich wurde von Aleem et al. publiziert, dass humane 12-LO aus Thrombozyten Dimere bilden kann [219]. Somit konnte es möglich sein, dass auch die humane 5-LO zur Dimerisierung fähig ist. Zunächst wurde aufgereinigtes Enzym mit nativer Gelelektrophorese und anschließender Coomassiefärbung oder Western Blot untersucht, dabei konnten mehrere Banden pro Bahn detektiert werden. Um dieses Phänomen weiter zu untersuchen, wurde im Anschluss eine Gelfiltration etabliert; da die C2ld der 5-LO recht hydrophob ist, war es nötig, 0,5% T20 zum Elutionspuffer PBS/EDTA zuzusetzen, da das Enzym ansonsten unspezifisch mit dem Säulenmaterial interagiert und für seine Größe zu spät eluiert hätte. In Anwesenheit von T20 eluierte 5-LO in zwei getrennten Peaks, die exakt zu den vorher mit Referenzproteinen bestimmten Elutionsvolumina des Monomers und Dimers passten. Weiter wurde getestet, ob niedermolekulare Substanzen einen Einfluss auf das Dimerisierungsverhalten haben, allerdings konnte weder durch Ca2+noch durch ATP eine Verstärkung der Dimerisierung beobachtet werden. Dahingegen konnte, nach Vorinkubation mit GSH und Diamid, das alleinige Monomer auf der Gelfiltration nachgewiesen werden, nach Vorinkubation nur mit Diamid, lag das gesamte Protein ausschließlich als Dimer vor. Durch Gelelektrophorese mit oder ohne Zusatz von ß-Mercaptoethanol und LILBID-MS konnte die Ausbildung von intermolekularen Disulfidbrücken bestätigt werden. Ein Bindungsassay mit radioaktivem 35S-GSH konnte die kovalente Bindung des GSH an die 5-LO bestätigen. Quantifizierungsstudien mit Ellmans Reagens zeigten, dass mindestens eins der Oberflächencysteine mit GSH modifiziert wurde. Die von der Gelfiltration erhaltenen Fraktionen wurden auf enzymatische Aktivität getestet und in allen 5-LO-haltigen Fraktionen konnte Aktivität gefunden werden. Leider war es nicht möglich, eine Aussage darüber zu treffen, ob das Mono- oder das Dimer aktiver war. Es liegt offenbar in einem Fließgleichgewicht vor, da erneute Injektion des Monomerpeaks im bekannten Elutionsprofil aus zwei Peaks resultierte. Außerdem führt die Anwesenheit von 0,5% T20 während des Aktivitätstests zu einer Hemmung des Enzyms und weniger detektierbaren 5-LO-Produkten; es fiel vor allem auf, dass so gut wie keinerlei trans- und epitrans-LTB4, die nicht-enzymatischen Zerfallprodukte der 5-HpETE, nachzuweisen waren. Betrachtet man die Struktur der 5-LO, so findet man zehn Cysteine an der Oberfläche; die Cysteine 159, 300, 416 und 418 liegen dabei in einem Interface. Mutiert man diese Cysteine zu Serinen, so verschwindet der Dimer-induzierende Effekt des Diamids, wohingegen die Mutante weiterhin glutathionylierbar bleibt. Interessanterweise zeigt diese Mutante auch eine wesentlich weniger ausgeprägte Hemmung durch T20. Um eine Aussage treffen zu können, ob auch 5-LO aus humanen Zellen Dimere bilden kann, wurde 5-LO-haltiger S100 aus polymorphkernigen Leukozyten (PMNL) untersucht. Dabei konnte mit Western Blot und einem Aktivitätsnachweis gezeigt werden, dass die 5-LO in einem breiten Bereich von der Gelfiltration eluiert. Das deutet darauf hin, dass sie in PMNL ebenfalls dimerisiert vorliegen kann. In Gegenwart von Ca2+kam es zu einer Verschiebung der 5-LO zu höhermolekularen Gewichten, wobei dieses Phänomen nicht bei S100 aus transformierten E.coli auftrat, was auf einen gerichteten Komplex nach Calciuminduktion in PMNL hindeutet. Außerdem wurde im Rahmen dieser Arbeit der Bindemodus von Sulindac an die 5-LO mittels Crosslinking untersucht. Dabei konnte gezeigt werden, dass konzentrationsabhängig der einfache Komplex aus 5-LO und CLP abnimmt, dafür aber ein hochmolekularer Komplex, der beide Enzyme enthält, entsteht. Weder das Prodrug Sulindac noch der weitere Metabolit Sulindacsulfon oder andere Inhibitoren, die ebenfalls an der C2ld angreifen sollen, zeigten diesen Effekt. Leider konnte nicht weiter geklärt werden, was diesen Effekt verursacht, allerdings liegt die Vermutung nahe, dass es zu einer Aggregation kommt. Weitere Untersuchungen könnten wichtige Hinweise auf das Design von neuen Arzneistoffen bringen, um selektivere und damit nebenwirkungsärmere Inhibitoren zu finden.
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Pulsed EPR characterization of membrane transport protein complexes
(2012)
- Pulsed electron–electron double resonance (PELDOR) spectroscopy is a powerful tool for measuring nanometer distances in spin-labeled systems and recently is increasingly applied to membrane proteins. However, after reconstitution of labeled proteins into liposomes, spin labels often exhibit a much faster transversal relaxation (Tm) than in detergent micelles, thus limiting application of the method in lipid bilayers. In the first part of the thesis, optimization of transversal relaxation in phospholipid membranes was systematically investigated by use of spin-labeled derivatives of stearic acid and phosphatidylcholine as well as spin-labeled derivatives of the channel-forming peptide gramicidin A under the conditions typically employed for PELDOR distance measurements. Our results clearly show that dephasing due to instantaneous diffusion that depends on dipolar interaction among electron spins is an important contributor to the fast echo decay in cases of high local concentrations of spin labels in membranes. The main difference between spin labels in detergent micelles and membranes is their local concentration. Consequently, avoiding spin aggregation and suppressing instantaneous diffusion is the key step for maximizing PELDOR sensitivity in lipid membranes. Even though proton spin diffusion is an important relaxation mechanism, only in samples with low local concentrations does deuteration of acyl chains and buffer significantly prolong Tm. In these cases, values of up to 7 μs have been achieved. Furthermore, our study revealed that membrane composition and labeling position in the membrane can also affect Tm, either by promoting the segregation of spin-labeled species or by altering their exposure to matrix protons. Effects of other experimental parameters including temperature (<50 K), presence of oxygen, and cryoprotectant type are negligible under our experimental conditions. In the second part of the thesis, inhomogeneous distribution of spin-labels in detergent micelles has been studied. A common approach in PELDOR is measuring the distance between two covalently attached spin labels in a macromolecule or singly-labeled components of an oligomer. This situation has been described as a spin-cluster. The PELDOR signal, however, does not only contain the desired dipolar coupling between the spin-labels of the molecule or cluster under study. In samples of finite concentration the dipolar coupling between the spin-labels of the randomly distributed molecules or spin-clusters also contributes significantly. In homogeneous frozen solutions or lipid vesicle membranes this second contribution can be considered to be an exponential or stretched exponential decay, respectively. In this study, it is shown that this assumption is not valid in detergent micelles. Spin-labeled fatty acids that are randomly partitioned into different detergent micelles give rise to PELDOR time traces which clearly deviate from stretched exponential decays. As a main conclusion a PELDOR signal deviating from a stretched exponential decay does not necessarily prove the observation of specific distance information on the molecule or cluster. These results are important for the interpretation of PELDOR experiments on membrane proteins or lipophilic peptides solubilized in detergent micelles or small vesicles, which often do not show pronounced dipolar oscillations in their time traces. In the third part, PELDOR has been utilized to study the structural flexibility of the Toc34 GTPase homodimer, a preprotein receptor of the translocon of the outer envelope of chloroplasts (TOC). Toc34 belongs to GAD subfamily of G-proteins that are regulated and activated by nucleotide-dependent dimerization. However, the function of Toc34 dimerization is not yet fully understood. Previous structural investigations of the Toc34 dimer yielded only marginal structural changes in response to different nucleotide loads. PELDOR revealed a nucleotide-dependent transition of the dimer flexibility from a tight GDP to a flexible GTP-loaded state. Substrate-binding stabilizes the dimer in the transition state mimicked by GDP-AlFx, but induces an opening in the GDP or GTP-loaded state. Thus, the structural dynamics of bona fide GTPases induced by GTP hydrolysis is replaced by substrate-dependent dimer flexibility, which represents the regulatory mode for dimerizing GTPases. In the fourth part of the thesis, conformational flexibility and relative orientation of the N-terminal POTRA domains of a cyanobacterial Omp85 from Anabaena sp. PCC 7120, a key component of the outer membrane protein assembly machinery, were investigated by PELDOR spectroscopy. Membrane proteins of the Omp85-TpsB superfamily are composed of a C-terminal β-barrel and a different number of N-terminal POTRA domains, three in the case of cyanobacterial Omp85. It has been suggested that the N-terminal POTRA domains (P1 and P2) might have functions in substrate recognition. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations predicted a fixed orientation for P2 and P3 and a flexible hinge between P1 and P2. The PELDOR distances measured between the P2 and P3 POTRA domains are in good agreement with the structure determined by X-ray, and compatible with the MD simulations suggesting a fixed orientation between these domains. PELDOR constraints between the P1 and P2 POTRA domains imply a rather rigid structure with a slightly different relative orientation of these domains compared with the X-ray structure. Moreover, the large mobility predicted from MD is not observed in the frozen solution. The PELDOR results further highlight the restricted relative orientation of the POTRA domains of the Omp85-TpsB proteins as a conserved characteristic feature that might be important for the processive sliding of the unfolded substrate towards the membrane.
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Structural and functional characterization of the triplet acyl carrier protein in the curacin cluster and its interaction partners
(2011)
- According to the World Health Organization (WHO) bacterial resistance to antibiotic drug therapy is emerging as a major public health problem around the world. Infectious diseases seriously threaten the health and economy of all countries. Hence, the preservation of the effectiveness of antibiotics is a world wide priority. The key to preserving the power of antibiotics lies in maintaining their diversity. Many microorganisms are capable of producing these bioactive products, the so called antibiotics. Specifically in microorganisms, polyketide synthases (PKS) and non-ribosomal peptide synthases (NRPS) produce these natural bioactive compounds. Besides being used as antibiotics these non-ribosomal peptides and polyketides display an even broader spectrum of biological activities, e.g. as antivirals, immunosuppressants or in antitumor therapy. The wide functional spectrum of the peptides and ketides is due to their structural diversity. Mostly they are cyclic or branched cyclic compounds, containing non-proteinogenic amino acids, small heterocyclic rings and other unusual modifications such as epimerization, methylation, N‐formylation or heterocyclization. It is has been shown that these modifications are important for biological activity, but little is known about their biosynthetic origin. PKS and NRPS are multidomain protein assembly lines which function by sequentially elongating a growing polyketide or peptide chain by incorporating acyl units or amino acids, respectively. The growing product is attached via a thioester linkage to the 4’-phosphopantetheine (4’-Ppant) arm of a holo acyl carrier protein (ACP) in PKSs or holo peptidyl carrier protein (PCP) in NRPSs and is passed from one module to another along the chain of reaction centers. The modular arrangement makes PKS and NRPS systems an interesting target for protein engineering. More than 200 novel polyketide compounds have already been created by module swapping, gene deletion or other specific manipulations. Unfortunately, however, engineered PKS often fail to produce significant amounts of the desired products. Structural studies may faciliate yield improvement from engineered systems by providing a more complete understanding of the interface between the different domains. While some information about domain-domain interactions, involving the most common enzymatic modules, ketosynthase and acyltransferase, is starting to emerge, little is known about the interaction of ACP domains with other modifying enzymes such as methyltransferases, epimerases or halogenases. To further improve the understanding of domain-domain interactions this work focuses on the curacin A assembly line. Curacin A, which exhibits anti-mitotic activity, is from the marine cyanobacterium Lyngbya majuscula. This outstanding natural product contains a cyclopropane ring, a thiazoline ring, an internal cis double bond and a terminal alkene. The biosynthesis of curacin A is performed by a 2.2 Mega Dalton (MDa) hybrid PKS-NRPS cluster. A 10-enzyme assembly catalyzes the formation of the cyclopropane moiety as the first building block of the final product. Interestingly, for these enzymes the substrate is presented by an unusual cluster of three consecutive ACPs (ACPI,II,III). Little is known about the function of multiple ACPs which are supposed to increase the overall flux for enhanced production of secondary metabolites. The first task in this work was to elucidate the structural effect of the triplet ACP repetition by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). The initial data show that the excised ACPI, ACPII or ACPIII proteins resulted in [15N, 1H]-TROSY spectra with strong chemical shift perturbations (CSPs), suggesting an effect on the structure. The triplet ACP domains display a high sequence identity (93- 100%) making structural investigation using usual NMR techniques due to high peak overlap impossible. To enable the investigation of the triplet ACP in its native composition we developed a powerful method, the three fragment ligation. Segmental labeling allows incorporating isotopes into one single domain in its multidomain context. As a result we could prepare the triplet ACP with only one domain isotopically labeled and therefore assign the full length protein. In this way our method paved the way to study the structural effects of the triplet ACP repetition. We could show unexpectedly, that, despite the fact that the triplet repeat of CurA ACPI,II,III has a synergistic effect in the biosynthesis of CurA, the domains are structurally independent. In the second part of this work, we studied the structure of the isolated ACPI domain. Our results show that the CurA ACPI undergoes no major conformational changes upon activation via phosphopantetheinylation and therefore contradicts the conformational switching model which has been proposed for PCPs. Further we report the NMR solution structures of holo-ACPI and 3-hydroxyl-3-methylglutaryl (HMG)-ACPI. Data obtained from filtered nuclear overhauser effect (NOE) experiments indicate that the substrate HMG is not sequestered but presented on the ACP surface. In the third part of this work we focussed on the protein-protein interactions of the isolated ACPI with its cognate interaction partners. We were especially interested in the interaction with the halogenase (Cur Hal), the first enzyme within the curacin A sub-cluster, acting on the initial hydroxyl-methyl-glutaryl (HMG) attached to ACPI. Primarily we studied the interaction using NMR titration and fluorescence anisotropy measurements. Surprisingly no complex between ACPI and Cur Hal could be detected. The combination of an activity assay using matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) mass spectroscopy and mutational analysis revealed several amino acids of ACPI that strongly decrease the activity of CurA Hal. Mapping these mutations according to their effect on the Cur Hal activity onto the structure of HMG-ACPI displays that these amino acids surround the substrate and form a consecutive surface. These results suggest that this surface is important for Cur Hal recognition and selectivity. Our research presented herein is an excellent example for protein-protein interactions in PKS systems underlying a specific recognition process.
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Biophysical studies on LmrA : a multidrug resistance ABC transporter / von Ute A. Hellmich
(2010)
- LmrA is a member of the ATP Binding Cassette (ABC) transporter family of membrane proteins and a structural and functional homologue of P-glycoprotein1, 2. ABC-transporters share a common architecture of two transmembrane domains and two nucleotide binding domains. The NBDs are highly conserved in this transporter family whereas the TMDs are highly diverse3. The TMDs recognize the substrate and the NBDs bind and hydrolyze ATP and thus contribute the energy for substrate translocation. ABC transporters as a protein family transport a high number of substrates including peptides, nutrients, ions, bile acids, lipids and other lipophilic compounds. LmrA is a multidrug transporter that recognizes a number of hydrophobic substrates including fluorescent dyes and antibiotics1, 4-6. LmrA is a native protein of the gram-positive bacterium Lactococcus lactis. In this thesis, L. lactis was used as a homologous expression host for the preparation of LmrA for a variety of experiments. Wildtype LmrA as well as a number of cysteine mutants were successfully expressed in L. lactis, purified and subsequently characterized by a variety of biochemical assays (Chapter 4). LmrA can be expressed to very high amounts in L. lactis. The purification and reconstitution were optimized for the requirements of solid-state NMR experiments in this thesis. For the first time, an ABC transporter has been reconstituted in synthetic lipids to a ratio of up to 1:150 (mol/mol). LmrA was shown to be active under magic angle spinning conditions with these reconstitution ratios. By taking advantage of the slower ATP hydrolysis by LmrA ΔK388 (lysine deletion in the Walker A motif), a real-time 31P solid-state NMR ATPase assay was established (Chapter 5). This assay allowed, for the first time, the investigation of all phosphor nuclei during the ATP hydrolysis cycle of a membrane protein simultaneously and in real time7. This assay has been successfully adapted to investigate both ATP hydrolysis and substrate phosphorylation of diacylglycerol kinase (together with S. Wollschlag) and ATP hydrolysis at high temperatures of the thermophilic ABC transporter ABC1 from Thermos thermophilus (together with A. Zutz). In the course of this thesis, the gene for LmrA has been cloned into expression vectors suitable for Escherichia coli and the heterologous expression of LmrA was established (Chapter 4). The functionality of the heterologously expressed protein has been investigated and compared to L. lactis LmrA. In these experiments, LmrA was shown to yield a distinct multidrug resistance phenotype in its E. coli host and to show secondary active multidrug transport in the absence of ATP and presence of a proton gradient [Hellmich et al, in prep] (Chapter 4). Previously, it had been shown that LmrA acts as a seconadary active transporter when the NBDs are truncated8. The overexpression in minimal and defined medium and the purification of LmrA from E. coli have been optimized. Isotope labeling for ssNMR has been established and the first multinuclear ssNMR experiments have been carried out on a functional ABC transporter (Chapter 8). ABC transporters couple two cycles: upon ATP binding, the NBDs dimerize, hydrolyze the ATP, subsequently release Pi and ADP and finally dissociate. During this cycle, conformational changes are relayed to the TMDs which utilize the energy from ATP binding and/or hydrolysis to translocate the respective substrate. The prehydrolysis state can be trapped by beryllium fluoride, whereas the post-hydrolysis state of this cycle can be trapped by vanadate9-12. Trapping protocols for these reagents were successfully established for LmrA in this thesis (Chapter 4). This allowed for the investigation of different catalytic states by both ssNMR and EPR. A general 19F labeling protocol for membrane proteins has been established in the course of this thesis and successfully applied to proteorhodopsin (together with N. Pfleger)13 and LmrA (chapter 6). Single cysteine mutants of LmrA that line out the dimer interface have been labeled with a fluorine label for ssNMR. In the apo state, the 19F labeling indicates highly flexible transmembrane domains, a finding that is supported by 13C ssNMR and EPR measurements. The addition of drugs has a different effect on different positions within the LmrA dimer, therefore indicating that different drugs are recognized at a different position within the protein. For P-glycoprotein and LmrA it has been previously shown by biochemical methods that different drug binding sites co-exist. For a 19F label attached at position 314 (LmrA E314C), the spectra showed two distinct peaks with similar populations. This could hint towards a structural asymmetry within the LmrA dimer that might also be reflected in the alternating ATP hydrolysis at the NBDs. E314 has been specifically implicated with drug transport. Thus, structural asymmetry at this position might be functionally relevant for guiding a substrate through the transporter. Structural asymmetry within a homodimeric ABC transporter has also been shown for BtuCD, the E. coli vitamin B12 importer14. In addition, the conserved glutamates in EmrE, a small multidrug resistance protein, were shown to be asymmetric in the drug bound state15. Both, uniformly 13C/15N labeled as well as selectively amino acid type labeled LmrA has been investigated in different conformational states. Interestingly, significant dynamic changes in the b-sheet regions of LmrA (confined to the NBDs) were observed in the pre-hydrolysis (beryllium fluoride) and transition state (vanadate trapped) state. These were interpreted as the transition from a domain in fast conformational exchange in the apo state to one of intermediate exchange in the nucleotide bound state. A significant change in NBD mobility upon nucleotide binding was previously also shown with 2H ssNMR on LmrA16. By EPR it was shown that LmrA in both the vanadate and BeFx trapped states displays a significantly higher rigidity and therefore defined distances, whereas the apo state resembled a “floppy” protein with no preferred distance distribution. This concurs with data obtained from 19F ssNMR with fluorine labeled single-cysteine mutants. Here, in agreement with the EPR data, a higher label (and possibly) protein mobility was observed in the apo state displaying rather broad line widths. Upon trapping with vanadate, the line widths of the majority of fluorine-labeled mutants decreased due to an enhanced protein rigidity and a more homogenous environment of the fluorine labels. A similar observation was made when increasing the temperature that can be explained due to higher protein flexibility at increased temperatures. Solution NMR was employed to investigate the isolated soluble NBD of LmrA (Chapter 9). First 2D and 3D spectra were successfully obtained and could be utilized for a preliminary assignment of a significant fraction of residues. Additionally, binding of ATP and ADP in absence and presence of magnesium was investigated. Finally, the effects of peptides emulating the coupling helices of the full-length transporter on the soluble NBD were investigated. Strikingly, binding of one of these peptides only occurred in the presence of nucleotides (whereas the other showed no binding at all) hinting towards a tightly coupled regulation of the NBD and TMD during the substrate translocation/ATP hydrolysis cycle based on nucleotide binding.
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X-ray structure of the Na+-coupled Glycine-Betaine symporter BetP from Corynebacterium glutamicum
(2009)
- Cellular membranes are important sites of interaction between cells and their environment. Among the multitude of macromolecular complexes embedded in these membranes, transporters play a particularly important role. These integral membrane proteins perform a number of vital functions that enable cell adaptation to changing environmental conditions. Osmotic stress is a major external stimulus for cells. Bacteria are frequently exposed to either hyperosmotic or hypoosmotic stress. Typical conditions for soil bacteria, such as Corynebacterium glutamicum, vary between dryness and sudden rainfall. Physical stimuli caused by osmotic stress have to be sensed and used to activate appropriate response mechanisms. Hypoosmotic stress causes immediate and uncontrolled influx of water. Cells counteract by instantly opening mechanosensitive channels, which act as emergency valves leading to fast efflux of small solutes out of the cell, therebydiminishing the osmotic gradient across the cell membrane. Hyperosmotic stress, on the other hand, results in water efflux. This is counterbalanced by an accumulation of small, osmotically active solutes in the cytoplasm, the so-called compatible solutes. They comprise a large variety of substances, including amino acids (proline), amino acid derivatives (betaine, ectoine), oligosaccharides (trehalose), and heterosides (glucosylglycerol). Osmoregulated transporters sense intracellular osmotic pressure and respond to hyperosmotic stress by facilitating the inward translocation of compatible solutes across the cell membrane, to restore normal hydration levels. This work presents the first X-ray structure of a member of the Betaine-Choline-Carnitine-Transporter (BCCT) family, BetP. This Na+-coupled symporter from Corynebacterium glutamicum is a highly effective osmoregulated and specific uptake system for glycine-betaine. X-ray structure determination was achieved using single wavelength anomalous dispersion (SAD) of selenium atoms. Selenium was incorporated into the protein during its expression in methione auxotrophic E. coli cells, grown in media supplemented with selenomethionine. SAD data with anomalous signal up to 5 Å led to the detection of 39 selenium sites, which were used to calculate the initial electron density map of the protein. Medium resolution and high data anisotropy made the structure determination of BetP a challenging task. A specific strategy for data anisotropy correction and a combination of various crystallographic programs were necessary to obtain an interpretable electron density map suitable for model building. The crystal structure of BetP shows a trimer with glycine-betaine bound in a three-fold cation-pi interaction built by conserved tryptophan residues. The bound substrate is occluded from both sides of the membrane and aromatic side chains line its transport pathway. Very interestingly, the structure reveals that the alpha-helical C-terminal domain, for which a chemo- and osmosensory function was elucidated by biochemical methods, interacts with cytoplasmic loops of an adjacent monomer. These unexpected monomer-monomer interactions are thought to be crucial for the activation mechanism of BetP, and a new atomic model combing biochemical results with the crystal structure is proposed. BetP is shown to have the same overall fold as three unrelated Na+-coupled symporters. While these were crystallised in either the outward- or inward-facing conformation, BetP reveals a unique intermediate state, opening new perspectives on the alternating access mechanism of transport.
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Improving methods for the study of membrane proteins by solid-state NMR
(2009)
- Solid state NMR is a emerging method for the study of membrane proteins, which has received much interest in recent years. Limiting the study of many pharmacologically relevant targets, are the often long measuring times, required to obtain especially higher dimensional solid state NMR spectra of good quality. To address this problem, multiple methods where developed in this work, which can be categorized into two groups. The first set of methods aims at the quality of certain spectra, by implementing a spectral filter, which increases the fidelity of the measured data. The second set of methods, addresses the problem of long measuring times directly, by increasing the sensitivity per unit time, as could be shown, for example, on homo- and heteronuclear singlequantum-singlequantum correlation experiments. The gains in measuring time for the latter group of methods are typically in the order of 2-3, but some experiments allow multiple methods to be employed simultaneously, which can lead to a decrease in measuring time of a factor of up to 8. It is important to mention, that none of the methods introduced in this work require any equipment in addition to the conventional setup present in most sold state NMR laboratories and no changes or addition to the samples under study are required. Therefore the gains reported in this work come at no extra cost and require only minimal implementation effort on the side of the user.
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NMR, EM and functional studies on TBsmr, a small multidrug transporter from M. tuberculosis
(2008)
- Antibiotic resistance of pathogenic bacteria is a major worldwide problem. Bacteria can resist antibiotics by active efflux due to multidrug efflux pumps. The focus of this study has been the mycobacterial multidrug transporter TBsmr because it belongs to the small multidrug resistance (SMR) family whose members are a paradigm to study multidrug efflux due to their small size. SMR proteins are typically 11-12 kDa in size and have a four-transmembrane helix topology. They bind cationic, lipophilic antibiotics such as ethidium bromide (EtBr) and TPP+, and transport them across the membrane in exchange for protons. To understand the molecular mechanism of multidrug resistance, we have to gain information about the structure and function of these proteins. The research described in this thesis aimed to deduce details about the topology, transport cycle and key residues of TBsmr using biophysical techniques. Solid-state NMR (ssNMR) can provide detailed insight into structural organization and dynamical properties of these systems. However, a major bottleneck is the preparation of mg amounts of isotope labeled protein. In case of proteoliposomes, the problem is compounded by the presence of lipids which have to fit into the small active volume of the ssNMR rotor. In Chapter 3, an enhanced protein preparation is described which yields large amounts of TBsmr reconstituted in a native lipid environment suitable for further functional and structual studies. The achieved high protein-to-lipid ratios made a further characterization by ssNMR feasible. The transport activity and oligomeric state of the reconstituted protein in different types of lipid was studied as shown in Chapter 4. The exact oligomeric state of native SMR proteins is still uncertain but a number of biochemical and biophysical studies in detergent suggest that the minimal functional unit capable of binding substrate is a dimer. However, binding assays are not ideal since a protein may bind substrate without completing the transport cycle which can only be shown for reconstituted protein in transport assays.By combining functional data of a TPP+ transport assay with information about theoligomeric state of reconstituted TBsmr obtained by freeze-fracture electron microscopy, it could be shown that lipids affect the function and the oligomeric state of the protein, and that the TBsmr dimer is the minimal functional unit necessary for transport. The transport cycle must involve various conformational states of the protein needed for substrate binding, translocation and release. A fluorescent substrate will therefore experience a significant change of environment while being transported, which influences its fluorescence properties. Thus the substrate itself can report intermediate states that form during the transport cycle. In Chapter 5, the existence of such a substrate-transporter complex for the TBsmr and its substrate EtBr could be shown. The pH gradient needed for antiport has been generated by co-reconstituting TBsmr with bacteriorhodopsin. The measurements have shown the formation of a pH-dependant, transient substrate-protein complex between binding and release of EtBr. This state was further characterized by determining the Kd, by inhibiting EtBr transport through titration with non-fluorescent substrate and by fluorescence anisotropy measurements. The findings support a model with a single occluded intermediate state in which the substrate is highly immobile. Liquid-state NMR is a useful tool to monitor protein-ligand interactions by chemical shift mapping and thus identify and characterize important residues in the protein which are involved in substrate binding. In agreement with previous studies (Krueger-Koplin et al., 2004), the detergent LPPG was found to be highly suitable for liquid-state NMR studies of the membrane protein TBsmr and 42% of the residues could be assigned, as reported in Chapter 6. However, no specific interactions with EtBr were found. This observation was confirmed by LILBID mass spectrometry which showed that TBsmr was predominantly in the non-functional monomeric state. Functional protein was prepared in proteoliposomes which can be investigated by solidstate NMR (Chapter 7). Besides the essential E13, the aromatic residues W63, Y40, and Y60 have been shown to be directly involved in drug binding and transport. Different isotope labeling strategies were evaluated to improve the quality of the NMR spectra to identify and characterize these key residues. In a single tryptophan mutant of reconstituted TBsmr W30A, the binding of ethidium bromide could be detected by 13C solid-state NMR. The measurements have revealed two populations of the conserved W63 residue with distinct backbone structures in the presence of substrate. There is a controversy about the parallel or anti-parallel arrangement of the protomers in the EmrE dimer (Schuldiner, 2007) but this structural asymmetry is consistent with both a parallel and anti-parallel topology.
