Refine
Year of publication
- 2007 (6) (remove)
Document Type
- Doctoral Thesis (6)
Has Fulltext
- yes (6)
Is part of the Bibliography
- no (6)
Keywords
- Aufreinigung (1)
- Biophysik (1)
- Biosensorik (1)
- Blitzlicht (1)
- Blitzlicht-Photolyse (1)
- Carrier-Proteine (1)
- Chalydomonas (1)
- Channelrhodopsin (1)
- Chlamydomonas (1)
- IMAC (1)
Institute
Chlamydomonas reinhardtii ist eines der bekanntesten Modellsysteme der Forschung, um photo-, zell- und molekularbiologische Fragestellungen zu untersuchen. Die phototaktischen Reaktionen dieser einzelligen Grünalge werden durch mikrobielle Rhodopsine, sogenannte Photorezeptoren initiiert, deren Chromophor all-trans-Retinal ist. Eines dieser Rhodopsine ist Channelrhodopsin 2 (ChR2). Ein Sequenzvergleich mit anderen mikrobiellen Rhodopsinen aus Archaebakterien, wie z.B. der lichtgetriebenen Protonenpumpe Bakteriorhodopsin, zeigt eine Homologie von bis zu 20 %. Aus diesem Grund kann angenommen werden, dass die hydrophobe N-terminale Hälfte mit circa 300 von 737 Aminosäuren ebenso aus einem Siebentransmembranhelixmotiv besteht, wie dies für Rhodopsinmoleküle typisch ist. Seit der Entdeckung 2003 durch Nagel et al. ist bekannt, dass es sich bei ChR2 um einen lichtgetriebenen, kationenselektiven Ionenkanal handelt, der in dieser Form bisher nicht bekannt war. Diese biophysikalische Charakteristik konnte durch detaillierte elektrophysiologische Daten erhoben werden. Sie lieferten zudem die Erkenntnis, dass ChR2 als „Werkzeug“ in der Neurobiologie verwendet werden kann, da die lichtinduzierte Depolarisation zum Feuern von Aktionspotentialen in ChR2-exprimierenden Neuronen führt. Die vorliegende Arbeit sollte dazu beitragen, die molekularen Mechanismen von ChR2 aufzuklären, indem elektrophysiologische, spektroskopische und biochemische Daten miteinander korreliert wurden. Dazu wurde ChR2 funktionell in der methylotrophen Hefe Pichia pastoris exprimiert. Ein Glykosylierungstest konnte belegen, dass Pichia pastoris in der Lage ist, die für ChR2 erforderliche N-Glykosylierung durchzuführen. Mit einer 90%igen Expression war es somit möglich, ausreichend Protein für eine Metallchelat-Affinitätschromatographie zu gewinnen. Weiterhin konnte die bestehende Funktionalität nach der Isolierung von ChR2 nachgewiesen werden. Dies erfolgte zum einen über Messungen des charakteristischen Photostroms mittels der BLM-Technik. Zum anderen konnte dies durch spektroskopische Messungen der spezifischen Absorption von ChR2 bei 480 nm bestätigt werden. Die zeitaufgelöste Laserblitzabsorptionsspektroskopie lieferte zudem Differenzspektren des isolierten ChR2, die erstmalig das Vorhandensein eines spektral verschiedenen Intermediats bei 540 nm zeigten. Zusammen mit dem Zeitverlauf aller vier korrespondierenden Intermediate und der Hinzunahme elektrophysiologischer Daten konnte somit ein linearer Photozyklus bestehend aus vier Zuständen erstellt werden (erstellt durch Dr. Christian Bamann). Die ersten drei Intermediate des Photozyklus P1-P3 werden demnach durch die rotverschobene Spezies beschrieben, mit einer Relaxationszeit von unter einer Millisekunde. Dieses rote Intermediat spiegelt die Konformationsänderung des Retinals wider und geht mit dem Öffnen des Kanals einher. Die Zustände P2 und P3 konnten beide als kationenleitende Zustände identifiziert werden. Das Schließen des Kanals wird durch den Übergang von P3 zu P4 (spektral mit dem Grundzustand gleich) vermittelt. Das Zurückkehren in den Grundzustand folgt einem langsamen Prozess im Bereich von mehreren Sekunden. Biochemische, spektroskopische und elektrophysiologische Daten haben damit erfolgreich zur weiteren Aufklärung der molekularen Funktionsweise von ChR2 beigetragen. Mit diesen Ergebnissen ist nun die Erschließung neuer Informationen über die verschiedenen Signaltransduktionswege von Membranproteinen möglich.
First milestone of this Ph.D. thesis was the successful extension of conventional NTA/His-tag technique to self-assembling, multivalent chelator thiols for high-affinity recognition as well as stable and uniform immobilization of His-tagged proteins on chip surfaces. Bis-NTA was linked via an oligoethylene glycol to alkyl thiols by an efficient modular synthesis strategy yielding a novel, multivalent compound for formation of mixed SAMs with anti-adsorptive matrix thiols on gold. Multivalent chelator chips allow a specific, high-affinity, reversible, long-term immobilization of His-tagged proteins. In AFM studies reversibility of the specific protein immobilization process was visualized at single molecule level. The entire control over the orientation of the immobilized protein promotes this chip surface to an optimal platform for studies focusing on research targets at single molecule level and nanobiotechnology. Based on the constructed protein chip platform above and a novel AFM mode (contact oscillation mode, COM) – developed during the current Ph.D. work – protein nanolithography under physiological conditions enabling fabrication of active biomolecular patterns in countless variety has been established. Reversible COM-mediated nanostructuring is exceptionally suitable for multiplexed patterning of protein assemblies in situ. The first selfassembled protein layer acts as a biocompatible and ductile patterning material. Immobilized proteins can be replaced by the AFM tip applying COM, and the generated structures can be erased and refilled with different proteins, which are immobilized in a uniform and functional manner. Multi-protein arrays can be systematically fabricated by iterative erase-and-write processes, and employed for protein-protein interaction analysis. Fabrication of two-dimensionally arranged nanocatalytic centres with biological activity will establish a versatile tool for nanobiotechnology. As an alternative chip fabrication approach, the combined application of methodologies from surface chemistry, semiconductor technology, and chemical biology demonstrated successfully how pre-patterned templates for micro- and nanoarrays for protein chips are fabricated. The surface physical, as well the biophysical experiments, proved the functionality of this technology. The promises of such process technology are fast and economic fabrication of ready-to-use nanostructured biochips at industrial scale. Membrane proteins are complicated in handling and hence require sophisticated solutions for chip technological application. A silicon-on-insulator (SOI) chip substrate with microcavities and nanopores was employed for first technological investigation to construct a protein chip suitable for membrane proteins. The formation of an artificial lipid bilayer using vesicle fusion on oxidized SOI cavity substrates was verified by CLSM. Future AFM experiments will give further insights into the chip architecture and topography. This will provide last evidence of the sealing of the cavity by the lipid bilayer. Transmembrane proteins will be employed for reconstitution experiments on this membrane protein chip platform. Highly integrated microdevices will find application in basic biomedical and pharmaceutical research, whereas robust and portable point-of-care devices will be used in clinical settings.
A detailed understanding of how potassium channels function is crucial e. g. for the development of drugs, which could lead to novel therapeutic concepts for diseases ranging from diabetes to cardiac abnormalities. An improved understanding of channel structure may allow researchers to design medication that can restore proper function of these channels. This is particularly important for KCNQ channels, since four out of five family members are involved in human inherited disease. In addition to structure and function relationships the determinants which govern assembly of KCNQ subunits are decisive to understand the physiological role of the KCNQ channel family members. Many details of KCNQ channel assembly remain incompletely understood. Previous work has shown that the subunit-specific heteromerisation between KCNQ subunits is determined by a ~115 amino acid-long subunit interaction domain (si) within the C-terminus (Schwake et al., 2003). Recently, Jenke et al. (2003) proposed that the C-terminal domains in eag and erg K+ channels act as sites which drive tetramerization. From their ability to form coiled coils, these domains were referred to as tetramerizing coiled-coil (TCC) sequences. Jenke et al. also pointed out that KCNQ channels contain bipartite TCC motifs within their C-termini, exactly within the si domain, which is responsible for the subunit-specific interaction pattern. The first part of this thesis was dedicated to determine the individual role of these TCC domains on homomeric and heteromeric channel formation in order to further characterize the molecular determinants of KCNQ channel assembly. In the second part of this thesis cystein-scanning mutagenesis was employed, followed by thiol-specific modification using MTS reagents to screen more than 20 residues in the S3-S4 linker region and in the S4 transmembrane domain of the KCNQ1 channel to gain information about residue accessibility, the functional effects of thiol-modifying reagents (MTSES), and effects of crosslinking selected pairs of Cys residues by Cd+ ions, which could be used for testing model predictions based upon known Kv channel structures from the literature. According to homology modelling based on the Kv1.2 structure it was attempted to determine the proximity of individual residues from different transmembrane segments using the metal bridge approach (crosslinking by Cd+ ions). This led us to derive structural constraints for interactions between the S4 voltage sensor and adjacent transmembrane segments of KCNQ1. Similar studies have previously been performed on the Shaker K+ channel, which has served as a paradigm for structure-function research of voltage-gated K+ channels for a long time, but little is known for KCNQ channels concerning their similarity to published K+ channel structures.
Metabotropic glutamate receptor subtype 7 (mGluR7) belongs to the family of G-protein coupled receptors. mGluR7 is widely distributed in the brain and primarily localized at presynaptic terminals, where it is thought to regulate neurotransmitter release and synaptic plasticity. Studies have shown that the intracellular C-terminal tail of mGluR7 binds a variety of proteins in addition to trimeric G-proteins. These newly identified protein interactions are believed to play a key role in the synaptic targeting and G-protein dependent signaling of mGluR7. Protein interacting with C kinase 1 (PICK1), a PDZ-domain protein, is a strong interaction partner of mGluR7a. In order to investigate the role of PICK1 in the synaptic trafficking and signaling of mGluR7a, a knock-in mouse line in which the interaction of mGluR7a and PICK1 is disrupted was generated. Analysis of the mutant mice by immunocytochemistry and immunoelectron microscopy showed that the synaptic targeting and clustering of mGluR7a was not altered, indicating that PICK1 is not required for mGluR7a receptor membrane trafficking and synaptic localization. However, when the spontaneous synaptic activity of cerebellar granule cell cultures prepared from both wild-type and knock-in mice was monitored, and L-AP4 (400μm) was found to decrease the frequency, but not the amplitude, of spontaneous excitatory currents in wild-type neurons, while no effect of L-AP4 on spontaneous synaptic activity was observed in knock-in neurons. This indicates that PICK1 binding to the C-terminal region of mGluR7a plays an essential role in mGluR7a mediated G-protein signaling. We examined the threshold sensitivity for the convulsant pentetrazole (PTZ) in knock-in mice. It was found that mGluR7a knock-in mice had a greater sensitivity to PTZ than wild-type mice. Moreover, the surface parietal cortex EEG recordings of the mutant mice revealed spontaneous synchronous oscillation, or "spike-and-wave discharges" (SWD), which displayed similar characteristics to absence-like seizures. It was also observed that the knock-in mice responded to pharmacology as human absence epilepsy. These data suggests that the knock-in mice displayed the phenotype of absencelike epilepsy. Furthermore, the behavioral analysis of the mGluR7a knock-in mice showed no deficits in motor coordination, pain sensation, anxiety as well as spatial learning and memory, thus the interaction of mGluR7a and PICK1 appears not to contribute to these physiological processes. Taken together, our data provides evidence for an important role of PICK1 in Gprotein dependent signaling of mGluR7a, whereas PICK1 is not required for synaptic targeting and clustering of mGluR7a. Our results also provide an animal model of absencelike epilepsy generated by disruption of a single mGluR7a-PDZ interaction, thus creating a novel therapeutic target against this neurological disease.
Der metabotrope Glutamatrezeptor Untertyp 4 gehört zusammen mit den Untertypen 6, 7 und 8 zur Gruppe III der metabotropen Glutamatrezeptoren (mGluRs). Diese präsynaptisch lokalisierten Rezeptoren sind an der Regulation der Neurotransmission an glutamatergen und nicht-glutamatergen Synapsen beteiligt. In der vorliegenden Arbeit sollten bisher unbekannte intrazelluläre Interaktionspartner für den metabotropen Glutamatrezeptor Untertyp 4 (mGluR4) identifiziert werden, um neue Erkenntnisse zur Regulation und Funktion dieses Rezeptors zu gewinnen. Dazu wurden Bindungsstudien mit Fusionsprotein aus Glutathion-S-Transferase (GST) und der kompletten C-terminalen Domäne des mGluR4 (mGluR4-C) durchgeführt. Die gebundenen Proteine wurden auf silbergefärbten SDS-Polyacrylamidgelen analysiert und anschließend über MALDI-TOF-Massenspektrometrie und Datenbank-gestützte Computerprogramme identifiziert. Außerdem wurden in Zusammenarbeit mit Dr. John Caldwell Proteine über Tandemmassenspektrometrie identifiziert. Mit diesem Ansatz konnten zwölf potentielle mGluR4-Interaktionspartner identifiziert werden. Die Bindung an mGluR4 konnte für drei dieser Proteine durch Immunoblotanalyse mit spezifischen Antikörpern bestätigt werden: für das Mikrotubuli-assoziierte Protein 1B (MAP1B), das stable tubule-only polypeptide protein (STOP-Protein) und, in geringerem Ausmaß, für die schwere Kette des nicht-muskulären Myosin II-B (MHCIIB). Die Interaktion zwischen mGluR4 und MAP1B wurde im folgenden näher charakterisiert. Bindungsstudien mit GST-Fusionsproteinen zeigten, daß MAP1B auch an die C-terminalen Domänen von mGluR6, mGluR7 und mGluR8 und damit an alle mGluRs der Gruppe III bindet. Für die mGluRs der Gruppe II konnte keine Interaktion mit MAP1B belegt werden. Weitere Bindungsstudien mit Deletionsmutanten konnten die für die MAP1B-Bindung verantwortliche Binderegion auf die 24 bzw. 38 N-terminalen Aminosäuren der C-terminalen Domänen von mGluR7 bzw. mGluR8 eingrenzen. Es wurde gezeigt, daß das Ca2+-abhängig an dieselbe Rezeptorregion bindende Calmodulin mit MAP1B um die Bindung an mGluR4 konkurriert. Immuncytochemische Experimente konnten eine partielle Kolokalisation von MAP1B und mGluR4 in transfizierten Säugetierzellen nachweisen. In kultivierten Primärneuronen konnte eine partielle Kolokalisation von endogenem mGluR4 mit endogenem MAP1B gezeigt werden. Die teilweise Überlappung der Immunreaktivitäten von mGluR4 und MAP1B läßt darauf schließen, daß eine Interaktion der beiden Proteine auch unter physiologischen Bedingungen möglich ist.
The chemiosmotic theory suggested by Peter Mitchell (Mitchell, 1961, Nature 191:144-148; see Mitchell, 1979, Science 206:1148-1159 for review) postulated that the energy released upon the oxidation of electron donor substrates is transiently stored as electrochemical proton potential, delta-p across energy-transducing membranes, which acts then as the driving force for the ATP synthesis. Membrane protein complexes can both generate and utilise a transmembrane electrochemical proton potential, either by transmembrane proton transfer or by transmembrane electron transfer coupled to protolytic reactions on opposite sides of the membrane. The dihaem-containing membrane protein complex quinol:fumarate reductase (QFR) from the anaerobic epsilon-proteobacterium Wolinella succinogenes apparently combines both of these mechanisms (Haas et al, 2005, Biochemistry 44:13949-13961; Lancaster et al, 2005, PNAS 102:18860–18865; Mileni et al, 2005, Biochemistry 44:16718-16728; Madej et al, 2006, EMBO J 25:4963-4970). QFR is the terminal enzyme of anaerobic fumarate respiration that allows bacteria to use fumarate as the terminal electron acceptor (Kröger, 1978, Biochim Biophys Acta 505:129-45; Lancaster, 2004, In: Respiration in Archaea and Bacteria Volume 1:57-85). QFR couples the two-electron reduction of fumarate to succinate to the two-electron oxidation of quinol to quinone. QFR contains two haem b groups bound by the transmembrane subunit C, which are termed the ‘proximal haem’, bP, and the ‘distal haem’, bD, according to the relative proximity to the hydrophilic subunits A and B (Lancaster et al, 1999, Nature 402:377-85). The two-electron transfer via the two haem groups has been proposed (Lancaster, 2002, Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1565:215-231) and demonstrated (Madej et al, 2006, EMBO J 25:4963-4970) to be coupled to a compensatory, parallel transfer of two protons via a transmembrane proton transfer pathway. The two most prominent constituents of the proposed pathway were suggested to be the haem bD ring C propionate and the side chain of amino-acid residue Glu C180, after which the proton transfer pathway was named the ‘E-pathway’ (Lancaster, 2002, Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 565:215-231). The essential role of Glu C180 was supported by site-directed mutagenesis and structural and functional characterization of the enzyme E180Q, where the Glu C180 was replaced with a Gln residue (Lancaster et al, 2005, PNAS 102:18860–18865). Moreover, multiconformer continuum electrostatics (MCCE) calculations (Haas and Lancaster 2004, Biophys J 87:4298-4315) and Fouriertransformed infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy experiments (Haas et al, 2005, Biochemistry 44:13949-13961) indicated the Glu C180 side chain to undergo a combination of a conformational change and protonation upon haem reduction. The contribution of haem bD propionate is less clear, however, a combination of 13C labelling of the haem propionates with redox-induced FTIR experiments (Mileni et al, 2005, Biochemistry 44:16718-16728) and MCCE calculations (Haas and Lancaster, 2004, Biophys J 87:4298-4315) support a change in protonation, possibly accompanied by a change in environment upon haem reduction. These experiments and their results strongly support the existence of the ‘E-pathway’ which is transiently open during the reduction of the haem groups and blocked in the oxidized state of the enzyme (Lancaster, 2002b, Biochim Biophys Acta 1565:215-231). All available crystal structures of the QFR, however, are those of the oxidized enzyme. Therefore, it is advantageous to perform simulations of various redox states of the enzyme to determine for instance, how the side-chain of Glu C180 and haem bD ring C propionate behave upon changes of the redox states of the haem groups and why is the ‘E-pathway’ blocked in the oxidized state of the enzyme. Although the distal haem ring C propionate and Glu C180 were identified as the most prominent components of the proton transfer pathway, it was not clear, on the basis of the structure, how proton transfer could occur between them. In addition, two constituents are not enough to span the membrane region and the additional participants in the proton transfer pathway must be identified. Since an atomistic investigation of proton transfer in this system is not yet possible experimentally, I used available theoretical methods such as classical molecular dynamics (MD) simulation (Alder and Wainwright, 1959, J Phys Chem 31:459-466; McCammon et al, 1977, Nature 267:585-590) and Q-HOP molecular dynamics (Q-HOP MD) simulation (Lill and Helms, 2001, J Chem Phys 115:7993-8005) to investigate the postulated mechanism of electron coupled proton transfer in QFR. MD simulations allowed us to move away from static difference pictures obtained from FTIR experiments and MCCE calculations. The advantage of the MD simulations over the experiments and the simulations performed so far is that the time-dependent properties could now be analyzed. The behaviour of various residues and their side-chains and any environmental changes may be directly observed during MD simulations. Although classical MD simulations cannot be used to study proton transfer reactions, they can provide information on formation of configurations that would allow either direct proton transfer between donor and acceptor residues or indirect proton transfer mediated by water molecules. To avoid the static protonation of residues which is inherent in classical MD simulations, Q-HOP MD simulations were performed which explicitly describe proton transfer reactions by allowing the change of the protonation state of residues ‘on the fly’. The structures obtained after classical molecular dynamics simulations ....