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Vergleichende Analyse aktivierter Proviren der humanen endogenen Retrovirus-Familie HERV-K/HML 2 und Erarbeitung eines Modells zur Steuerung ihrer Expression in Melanom- und Keimzelltumorlinien (2009)

Nina Verena Fuchs

Humane endogene Retroviren (HERVs) sind Relikte von Infektionen der Keimzellen von Primatenvorläufern mit exogenen Retroviren vor 40 Millionen Jahren. Die meisten HERV Elemente sind defekt durch die Akkumulation von Mutationen, Deletionen und Rearrangements. Lediglich einige Proviren der HERV-K/HML-2 Familie enthalte noch offenen Leserahmen für alle retroviralen Proteine. Die Expression repetitiver endogener Elemente wird in somatischen Zellen unterdrückt. Transkription und Translation von HERV-K Genprodukten tritt in Keimzelltumoren, Melanomen und Eierstockkrebs auf. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde die HERV-K exprimierende Melanomlinie UKRV Mel 2-C9 etabliert und charakterisiert. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass die HERV-K Expressionen durch die dominante Aktivität des Provirus 108 bedingt ist. Die Expression und korrekte Prozessierung der viralen Proteine konnte nachgewiesen werden. Durch Elektronenmikroskopie wurde bestätigt, dass HERV-K 108 virale Partikel mit charakteristischen Strukturen der Hüllproteine produziert. Diese Partikel enthalten virale Volllängen RNA-Genome. Da HERV-K 108 in der Linie UKRV Mel 2-C9 eine Mutation im aktiven Zentrum der Reversen Transkriptase zeigt, sind die Partikel nicht infektiös. Um Einblicke in die der HERV-K Expression in Keimzelltumoren und Melanomen zu Grunde liegenden transkriptionellen Regulationsmechanismen zu erhalten, wurden mittels 5’ und 3’ RACE (rapid amplification of cDNA ends) der Transkriptionsstart und die Terminationsstelle bestimmt. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass der HERV-K Promotor in den untersuchten Zelllinien TATA-unabhängig agiert obwohl die HERV-K LTR (long terminal repeat) ein TATA-Motiv aufweist. Die transkriptionelle Aktivität des HERV-K Promotors ist abhängig von einer GC-Box in unmittelbarer Nähe zu einem Initiatorelement am Startpunkt der Transkription. Das GC-Sequenzmotiv ist die Bindestelle für die Transkriptionsfaktoren SP1 (specific protein) und SP3. Mutationen des Bindemotivs führten zu einem drastischen Abfall der Promotoraktivität im Luziferaseassay. Durch Proteinknockdown mittels spezifischer siRNA gegen SP1 und SP3 konnte die Promotoraktivität ebenso deutlich reduziert werden. Elektrophoretic mobility shift assays und Chromatinimmunopräzipitationen bestätigten eine Bindung von SP1 und SP3 an die HERV-K LTR. Die Transkriptionsfaktoren SP1 und SP3 sind an der Initiation der basalen Transkription von HERV-K maßgeblich beteiligt.

Untersuchungen zur Steigerung der rekombinanten Expression von FVIII auf transkriptioneller und posttranskriptioneller Ebene (2007)

Stefan Heinz

Der Mangel von Faktor VIII (FVIII) führt zur häufigsten Gerinnungsstörung, der Hämophilie A. Die rekombinante Expression von FVIII für gentherapeutische Ansätze oder zur Herstellung von FVIII ist zwei bis drei Größenordnungen niedriger verglichen mit anderen Proteinen vergleichbarer Größe. Die Ursachen für die geringe Expression liegen zum großen Teil an der ineffizienten Transkription und dem ineffizientem intrazellulären Transport. (1) Im Rahmen der Untersuchung der FVIII-Sekretion, konnte durch Verwendung von FVIII-GFP Fusionsproteinen zum ersten Mal gezeigt werden, wie FVIII in lebenden Zellen transportiert wird. Außerdem wurde anhand von vergleichenden Immunfluoreszensfärbungen, FVIII-Messungen und Westernblotanalysen demonstriert, dass weder bei der B-Domäne deletierten noch bei der Volllängenvariante signifikante Unterschiede zwischen den GFP-fusionierten und Wildtyp-FVIII-Varianten messbar waren. Offensichtlich wird die Funktionalität von FVIII durch die C-terminal fusionierte GFP-Domäne nicht eingeschränkt. In ersten Lebendzellanalysen konnte gezeigt werden, dass sich FVIII in primären Zellen und Zelllinien hauptsächlich im ER befindet und eine für lumenale ER-Proteine charakteristischen Mobilität aufweist. Beim frühen sekretorischen Transport zeigte sich bei Temperaturblock-Experimenten eine verlängerte Dauer der Akkumulation in ER-Exit-Sites und eine vergleichsweise niedrige Frequenz von ER-Golgi-Bewegungen. Es konnte zum ersten Mal der Nachweis von FVIII-Transport durch vesikuläre tubuläre Cluster erbracht werden. Die Ergebnisse deuten darauf hin, dass der möglicherweise durch Faltungsprobleme blockierte Austritt aus dem ER das Hauptproblem des ineffizienten FVIII-Transports zu sein scheint und weniger der intrazelluläre Transport an sich. Mittels siRNA-Silencing wurde außerdem die überwiegende Beteiligung von COPI am intrazellulären Transport von FVIII deutlich, dessen Herunterregulierung zu einer 78 prozentigen Reduktion der FVIII-Sekretion im Gegensatz zu 32 Prozent bei COPII führte. Dagegen konnte durch Herunterregulierung der Expression der p24-Cargo-Rezeptor Familienmitglieder p24 und p26 und der Clathrin Adapterproteine µ- und -Adaptin bzw. durch physiologischen Knock-out im Falle von ER-Exit-Rezeptor MCFD2 kein Einfluß auf die FVIII-Sekretion festgestellt werden. (2) Als Alternative zu dem ineffizienten FVIII-Expressionsystem in unphysiologischen Zelllinien, bieten primäre Endothelzellen den Vorteil einer hocheffizienten FVIII-Sekretion. Zur Verwendung bei der rekombinanten Produktion benötigt man allerdings eine kontinuierlich wachsende gut charakterisierte Zelllinie. Zur Immortalisierung wurden aus Nabelschnurblut gewonnene Endothelprogenitorzellen mit der aktiven Untereinheit der humanen Telomerase (hTERT) transduziert. Trotz erfolgreicher Transduktion und langfristiger Expression von hTERT, welche im TRAP-Assay normale Aktivität zeigte, gingen die Zellen nach der natürlichen Teilungsspanne in die Seneszenz über. Möglicherweise wird noch ein weiteres Immortalisierungsgen benötigt oder hTERT ist durch die ektopischen Expression in diesen Endothelzellen nicht funktionell. (3) Der Einsatz hämatopoetischer Stammzellen für gentherapeutische Ansätze zur Expression von humanen FVIII ist bislang aufgrund niedriger Expressionseffizienz der Vektoren limitiert. Es wurden daher die Kombinationen verschiedener transkriptioneller und posttranskriptioneller Elemente in FVIII-Expressionsvektoren ausgetestet. Hierbei zeigte sich, dass die Verwendung einer 5’ untranslatierten Region (5’UTR) des hämatopoetisch exprimierten FXIIIA-Gens die FVIII-Sekretion in verschiedenen Zelllinien und primären Zellen deutlich steigerte. Am stärksten war die Wirkung in primären Monozyten, in denen die FVIII-Expression den 6fachen Wert im Vergleich zum Ursprungsvektor ohne 5’UTR erreichte. Leberzellen stellen weitere attraktive Zielzellen für gentherapeutische Ansätze dar, da Sie den primären physiologischen Ort der FVIII-Synthese darstellen. Die häufig für Gentherapievektoren verwendeten ubiquitär exprimierenden viralen Promotoren bewirken zwar hohe Expression in den transduzierten Zellen, haben allerdings den Nachteil durch ektopische Expression vermehrt Immunantworten auszulösen und durch starke Interaktion mit benachbarten Promotoren der Integrationsstelle im Genom möglicherweise tumorgene Effekte zu verursachen. Bei der Untersuchung verschiedener physiologischer Promotoren im Vergleich zum viralen CMV Promotor in Leberzellen konnte mit dem zum ersten mal getesteten minimalen FVIII-Promoter in einem lentiviralen Vektor der dritten Generation in Leberzelllinien eine vergleichsweise hohe Expression von 0,5 IU/ml FVIII /106 Zellen erzielt werden. Der FVIII-Promoter ist daher geeignet für eine lebergerichtete Expression und minimiert dabei das potentielle Risiko der häufig verwendeten ubiquitären viralen Promotoren.

Untersuchungen zur Bedeutung des Kern-Zytoplasma Transports für die biologische Funktion zellulärer Proteine (2005)

Shirley Knauer

The thesis entitled „Investigations on the significance of nucleo-cytoplasmic transport for the biological function of cellular proteins" aimed to unreveal molecular mechanisms in order to improve our understanding of the impact of nucleo-cytoplasmic transport on cellular functions. Within the scope of this work, it could be shown that regulated nucleo-cytoplasmic transport of a subfamily of homeobox transcription factors controlled their intra- and intercellular transport, and thereby influencing also their transcriptional activity. This study describes a novel regulatory mechanism, which could in general play an important role for the ordered differentiation of complex organisms. Besides cis-active transport Signals, also post-translational modifications can influence the localization and biological activity of proteins in trans. In addition to the known impact of phosphorylation on the transport and activity of STAT1, experimental evidence was provided demonstrating that acetylation affected the interaction of STAT1 with NF-kB p65, and subsequently modulated the expression of apoptosis-inducing NF-kB target genes. The impact of nucleo-cytoplasmic transport on the regulation of apoptosis was underlined by showing that the evolutionary conservation of a NES within the anti-apoptotic protein survivin plays an essential role for its dual function in the inhibition of apoptosis and ordered cell division. Since survivin is considered a bona fide cancer therapy target, these results strongly encourage future work to identify molecular decoys that specifically inhibit the nuclear export of survivin as novel therapeutics. In order to further dissect the regulation of nuclear transport and to efficiently identify transport inhibitors, cell-based assays are urgently required. Therefore, the cellular assay Systems developed in this work may not only serve to identify synthetic nuclear export and Import inhibitors but may also be applied in systematic RNAi-screening approaches to identify novel components of the transport machinery. In addition, the translocation based protease- and protein-interaction biosensors can be applied in various biological Systems, in particular to identify protein-protein interaction inhibitors of cancer relevant proteins. In summary, this work does not only underline the general significance of nucleo-cytoplasmic transport for cell biology, but also demonstrates its potential for the development of novel therapies against diseases like cancer and viral infections.

Transkription und DNA-Reparatur in den Bruchpunktsregionen des MLL-Gens und seiner fünf häufigsten Translokationspartnergene AF4, AF9, AF10, ELL und ENL (2008)

Eric Kowarz

In der Vergangenheit wurden verschiedene Fusionstranskripte, welche normalerweise bei Leukämie-assoziierten chromosomalen Translokationen auftreten, in hämatopoetischen Zellen gesunder Personen gefunden. Da diese Personen keine entsprechenden chromosomalen Abberationen aufwiesen, ist es sehr wahrscheinlich, dass diese Fusionstranskripte durch trans-Spleißen entstehen. Während dieser Arbeit konnten durch inverse PCR, welche an unbehandelter cDNA gesunder Probanden durchgeführt wurde, intragenische trans-Spleiß-Produkte nachgewiesen werden. Interessanterweise weisen das MLL-Gen und seine fünf häufigsten Translokationspartner AF4, AF9, AF10, ELL und ENL ein großes Spektrum an trans-gespleißten RNAs auf. Nur in einem weiteren Mitglied der MLL-Familie (MLL3) konnte intragenisches trans-Spleißen nachgewiesen werden. Für verschiedene als Kontrolle verwendete Haushaltsgene konnte kein intragenisches trans-Spleißen nachgewiesen werden. Intergenische trans-Spleiß-Ereignisse konnten durch direkte PCR und RACEExperimente für die Gene MLL, ELL und ENL nachgewiesen werden. Bemerkenswerterweise entsprechen ein intragenisches trans-Spleiß-Produkt des MLL-Gens dem Transkript der chromosomalen Abberationen MLL-PTD und ein intergenisches trans-Spleiß-Produkt des MLL-Gens dem Transkript der chromosomalen Abberationen MLL•AF4. In Hefe konnte gezeigt werden, dass RNA als Vorlage für DNA-Reparaturen dienen kann. Somit lag der Schluß nahe, dass die oben genannten trans-gespleißten RNAs möglicherweise einen Einfluss auf die DNA-Reparatur haben. Dass RNA nicht nur in Hefen sondern auch in Menschen als Vorlage für DNA-Reparaturen dienen kann, konnte im Zuge dieser Arbeit durch mehrere in vitro Experimente mit Kernextrakten aus humanen Zelllinien bestätigt werden. Allerdings konnte keinerlei Einfluss von (trans-)gespleißter RNA auf die DNA-Reparatur in zahlreichen in vitro Experimenten nachgewiesen werden. Mit einem daraufhin etablierten in vivo System konnte ebenfalls ein Einfluss von (trans-) gespleißter RNA auf die DNA-Reparatur ausgeschlossen werden. Weiterhin konnten mit Hilfe der durchgeführten RACE-Experimente vorzeitige Polyadenylierungen von Transkripten in den Bruchpunktsregionen von MLL, AF4, AF9 und ENL identifiziert werden. Durch diese ungewöhnliche Termination der Transkription werden stark verkürzte Transkripte erzeugt, welche in kurze Proteinisoformen translatiert werden können. Ein Vergleich von 274 unterschiedlichen Bruchpunktsequenzen mit größeren direkten und indirekten Sequenzwiederholungen zwischen der Bruchpunktsregion von MLL und den Bruchpunktsregionen seiner häufigsten Translokationspartner wurde ebenfalls durchgeführt. Eine signifikante Korrelation zwischen den Sequenzwiederholungen und der Lokalisation der Bruchpunkte war jedoch nicht erkennbar. Bei diesem Vergleich fielen allerdings Häufungen von Bruchpunkten im MLL-Gen mit AF4, AF9 und ENL als Translokationspartner auf, wobei sich die Ursache für diese Häufungen auf Topoisomerase II Spaltstellen zurückführen ließ.

TK.007: a novel, optimized HSVtk-variant for suicide gene therapy (2010)

Ellen Preuß

Suicide genes have been broadly used in gene therapy. They can serve as safety tools for conditional elimination of infused cells or for directed tumor therapy. To date, the Herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase/ ganciclovir (HSVtk/GCV) system is the most prominent and the most widely used suicidegene/prodrug combination. Despite its promising performance, the system displays limitations, which include relatively slow killing kinetics and toxicity of the prodrug GCV. Consequently, several groups have either developed new suicide-gene/prodrug combinations or attempted to improve the established HSVtk/GCV suicide system. The present study also aimed towards optimization of the HSVtk/GCV system. To do so, a novel, codon-optimized point mutant (A168H) of HSVtk was developed. The novel mutant was named TK.007. It was extensively tested for its efficiency in two relevant settings: (1) control of severe graft-versus-host disease (GvHD) after adoptive immunotherapy with Tlymphocytes, and (2) direct elimination of targeted tumor cells. TK.007 was compared to the broadly used wild-type, splice-corrected scHSVtk and to a codon-optimized HSVtk (coHSVtk) not bearing the above point mutation. (1) For experiments related to the adoptive immunotherapy approach, HSVtkvariants were expressed from a γ-retroviral MP71 vector as a fusion construct with the selection and marker gene tCD34. Expression levels for TK.007 in transduced lymphoid and myeloid cell lines were significantly higher at initial transduction and over a 12 week period compared to the commonly used scHSVtk and coHSVtk indicating reduced toxicity of TK.007. Killing kinetics of transduced cell lines (PM1 and K562) and primary human T cells were significantly faster for TK.007 in comparison to scHSVtk and coHSVtk in vitro. In vivo-functionality of TK.007 was assessed in an allogeneic transplantation model. T cells derived from C57BL/6J.Ly5.1 donor mice were transduced with MP71 vectors expressing scHSVtk or TK.007. Transduced cells were selected and transplanted into Balb/c Rag2-/- γ-/- immune-deficient recipient mice. Acute, severe GvHD occurred and was effectively abrogated in all mice transplanted with TK.007- transduced T cells, and in five out of six mice transplanted with scHSVtk-transduced cells. In a slightly modified quantitative allogeneic transplantation mouse model, significantly faster and more efficient in vivo killing was demonstrated for TK.007 as compared to scHSVtk, especially at low doses of GCV. (2) In order to assess TK.007 functionality in cells derived from solid tumors, HSVtk-variants were expressed from lentiviral gene ontology (LeGO) vectors in combination with an eGFP/neo-opt selection cassette. Transduced and selected tumor cell lines that derived from several tissues were eliminated at significantly lower GCV doses and to higher extents when transduced with TK.007 compared to scHSVtk. Moreover, a significantly stronger bystander effect of TK.007 was demonstrated. The superior in vitro efficiency of TK.007 was confirmed in an in vivo subcutaneous xenograft mouse model for glioblastoma in NOD/SCID mice. Mice transplanted with TK.007 transduced cells stayed tumor-free after treatment with different GCV-doses. On the contrary, mice of the scHSVtk group either demonstrated only transiently reduced tumor growth in the low-dose GCV group (10 mg/kg) compared to the control groups or suffered from relatively fast relapses after initial tumor shrinking in the standarddose (50 mg/kg) GCV group. As a result, all mice in the scHSVtk group died from vigorous tumor growth. In summary, in two different applications for suicide gene therapy the present study has demonstrated superior functional performance of the novel suicide gene TK.007 as compared to the broadly used wild-type scHSVtk. Differences became particularly pronounced at low doses of GCV. It can be concluded that the new TK.007-gene represents a promising alternative to the commonly used scHSVtk for gene therapeutic applications.

The role of oncogenic Cbl mutants in Kit signaling and myeloid transformation (2009)

Srinivasa Rao Bandi

Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is a hematopoietic cell disorder characterized by a block in differentiation and increased proliferation and survival of malignant blasts. Expansion of the malignant cell clone effects the normal production of blood cells and – if left untreated – leads to death. Receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) play an important role in the pathogenesis of AML, as they are either often mutated or overexpressed. In normal hematopoiesis, RTK signal termination is tightly controlled, and involves ubiquitination, internalization, endocytosis and degradation. Cbl proteins are E3 ligases and have been shown to ubiquitinate several activated RTKs, including Flt3 and Kit, targeting them for degradation. Recently, several Cbl mutations have been identified: Cbl-R420Q was identified in an AML patient and Cbl-70Z was identified in a mouse lymphoma model. In this thesis work, the role of these Cbl mutants in Kit signaling and in a mouse transplantation model was studied. Cbl mutants (Cbl-R420Q, Cbl-70Z) have the ability to transform the myeloid 32D cell line in cooperation with Kit WT. Cbl mutants along with Kit promoted interleukin-3 (IL3)-independent proliferation and enhanced the cell survival of 32D cells. In contrast, expression of the Cbl mutants alone did not confer IL3-independent growth. Stem cell factor (SCF, the Kit ligand) dependent growth was enhanced in the presence of Cbl mutants and Cbl mutants promoted colonogenic growth in the presence of Kit. Furthermore, Cbl mutants inhibited the ubiquitination of the activated Kit receptor. In addition, Cbl mutants inhibited the endocytosis of the activated Kit receptor. Retroviral expression of Cbl mutants in transplanted bone marrow induced a generalized mastocytosis, a myeloproliferative disease and, in rare care cases, myeloid leukemia. Splenomegaly was observed in the presence of Cbl mutants. Furthermore, mast cells with variable range of infiltration were noticed in all the vital organs (spleen, liver, bone marrow, lung, kidney, heart) of Cbl (mutant) transplanted mice. Almost all recipients of bone marrow cells transduced with Cbl mutants developed a lethal hematologic disorder with a mean latency of 341 days in the Cbl-R420Q group and 395 days in the Cbl-70Z group. This is the first published report on a hematological disease with Cbl mutants in a mouse model. Co-immunoprecipitation studies indicated that Cbl-70Z binds to Kit, even in the absence of Kit ligand. Cbl-R420Q also bound to Kit in the absence of SCF, albeit to a lesser extent. Association of Cbl mutants to Kit was enhanced in the presence of SCF. Signaling studies demonstrated the constitutive activation of Akt and Erk in the presence of Cbl mutants and Kit. In addition, Cbl mutants enhanced the SCF-dependent Kit, Akt and Erk activation. Cbl-70Z, in association with kinase-dead Kit (Kit-KD) or kinase-dead Flt3 (Flt3-KD), conferred IL3-independent growth and survival to the myeloid 32D cell line. Cbl-R420Q provided only a slight growth advantage in the presence of Kit-KD. As demonstrated by pharmacological inhibition studies, Akt activation was necessary for the transformation mediated by Cbl-70Z and Kit-KD / Flt3-KD. Cbl mutants enhanced the Src family kinases (SFKs) activity. The pharmacological inhibition of SFK activity inhibited the proliferation and colonogenic growth. Interaction was found between Cbl-70Z, SFKs and Kit-KD. The SFK member Fyn was identified to bind to Cbl. In addition, kinase activity of SFKs was necessary for binding to Cbl, since SFKs inhibition by PP-2 abolished the binding between the complex-binding partners. Dasatinib and PP-2, both SFK inhibitors, inhibited the Cbl and Akt phosphorylation indicating that Fyn acts upstream of Akt. Inhibition of Kit with imatinib reduced the proliferation of cells overexpressing Kit WT and Cbl-70Z much stronger compared with cells expressing Kit-KD and Cbl-70Z, but much less than the dual KIT/SFK inhibitor dasatinib. This indicated that Kit kinase activity was required but not essential. The data presented in this thesis work implies that both RTK and SFK inhibition may have to be targeted, in order to effectively prevent transformation. In summary, the present thesis work indicates an important role of Cbl, Kit and SFKs in myeloid transformation and deregulated signal transduction.

T cell receptor diversity prevents T cell leukemia, lymphoma development / von Nabil Saleh Ahmed Al-Ghaili (2010)

Nabil al- Ghaili

Gene therapy is a promising therapeutic strategy that emerged from the attractive idea of targeting therapy at the molecular level. For many patients who suffer from genetic and acquired diseases that cannot be effectively treated by conventional treatment approaches gene therapy remains a huge hope of cure in spite of the hurdles regarding efficacy and safety that need to be overcome. The development of efficient gene transfer vehicles, mainly retroviral vectors, led to the first successful gene therapy trial, to treat patients suffering from X-linked severe combined immunodeficiency syndrome (X-SCID) using gene modified stem cells (Hacein-Bey-Abina, Le Deist et al. 2002). Despite the success of this trial, it revealed the danger of retroviral insertional mutagenesis as a major adverse event of gene therapy using gene-modified stem cells (Hacein-Bey-Abina, von Kalle et al. 2003). In contrast to stem cells, T cells are relatively resistant to insertional mutagenesis and transformation even after transduction with potent oncogenes using retroviral vectors (Newrzela, Cornils et al. 2008). However, mature T cells can self-renew, proliferate and survive for long periods. These criteria are supposed to render T cells prone to transformation. Therefore, the questions of mature T cells transformability and the control mechanism limiting their transformation are still elusive.

Role of SOCS proteins in FLT3-ITD and BCR/ABL mediated leukemogenesis (2010)

N. G. Pavan Kumar Reddy

Acute myeloid/lymphoid leukemia is a fatal hematological malignancy characterized by accumulation of nonfunctional, immature blasts, which interferes with the production of normal blood cells. Activating mutations of receptor tyrosine kinases are common genetic lesions in leukemia. FLT3-ITD is a frequent activating mutation found in AML patients, leading to uncontrolled proliferation of leukemic blasts. FLT3-ITD directly activates STAT5, leading to the induction of STAT5 target gene expression like PIM kinases and SOCS genes. STAT5 and PIM kinases have been shown to play a crucial role in the FLT3-ITD mediated transformation. On the other hand, the role of SOCS proteins in FLT3-ITD mediated transformation has not been studied to date. SOCS proteins are part of a negative feedback mechanism that controls Jak kinases downstream of cytokine receptors. One of the SOCS family members, SOCS1 has been reported to suppress oncogenecity of several activating kinases implicated in hematologic malignancies. In this thesis the role of these SOCS proteins in FLT3-ITD mediated transformation (in vitro) and leukemogenesis (in vivo) is systematically explored. Expression of FLT3-ITD in cell lines of myeloid (32D) and lymphoid (Ba/F3) origin, led to CIS, SOCS1 and SOCS2 expression. FLT3-ITD expression in primary murine bone marrow stem/progenitor cells led to a 59 fold induction of SOCS1 expression. Furthermore, FLT3-ITD positive AML cell lines (MV4-11, MOLM-13) show kinase dependent CIS, SOCS1, and SOCS3 expression. Importantly SOCS1 is highly expressed in AML patients with FLT3-ITD compared to healthy individuals. SOCS1 protein was expressed in FLT3-ITD transduced murine bone marrow stem cells and SOCS1 expression was abolished with kinase inhibition in MOLM-13 cell line. In conclusion, SOCS1 was highly regulated by FLT3-ITD in myeloid, lymphoid cell lines, in bone marrow stem/progenitors and in AML patient samples. SOCS1 co-expression did not affect FLT3-ITD mediated signaling and proliferation, but abolished IL-3 mediated proliferation and protected 32D cells from interferon-α and interferon-γ mediated growth inhibition. FLT3-ITD expressing 32D cells showed diminished STAT1 activation in response to interferons (α and γ). Alone, SOCS1 strongly inhibited cytokine induced colony formation of bone marrow stem and progenitors, but not FLT3-ITD induced colony formation. Most importantly, in the presence of growth inhibitory interferon-γ, SOCS1 co-expression with FLT3-ITD led to increased colony formation compared to FLT3-ITD alone. Taken together, FLT3-ITD induced and exogenously expressed SOCS1, shielded cells from external cytokines, signals, while not affecting FLT3-ITD induced proliferation/signaling. In further experiments the in vivo effects of SOCS1 were studied in a bone marrow transplantation model. SOCS1 bone marrow transplants were unable to engraft/proliferate in mice. FLT3-ITD was shown to induce a myeloproliferative disease. Both control (empty vector), SOCS1 transplanted mice were normal and did not show any disease phenotype. FLT3-ITD alone and SOCS1 co-expressing FLT3-ITD developed either myeloproliferative disease or acute lymphoblastic leukemia with equal distribution. SOCS1 co-expression with FLT3-ITD led to a decreased latency. Mice transplanted with FLT3-ITD alone and SOCS1 co-expressing FLT3-ITD displayed enlarged spleens, liver and hypercellular bone marrow indicating infiltration of leukemic cells. Mice were also anemic and showed decreased platelet counts. Importantly SOCS1 co-expression particularly shortened the latency of myeloproliferative disease but not of acute lymphoblastic leukemia. In summary, in the context of FLT3-ITD, SOCS1 acts as a ‘conditional oncogene’ and cooperates with FLT3-ITD in the development of myeloproliferative disease. With these data we propose the following model: FLT3-ITD induces SOCS gene expression, which shields cells against proliferation and differentiation signals from cytokines, while not affecting FLT3-ITD mediated proliferative signals. This leaves cells under the dictate of FLT3-ITD thereby contributing to leukemogenesis. Similar to FLT3-ITD, BCR/ABL (P190) (an oncogenic fusion kinase often found in acute lymphoblastic leukemia) induces SOCS gene expression in K562 and long-term cultured cells from patients with acute lymphoblastic leukemia. SOCS1 co-expression does not affect BCR/ABL mediated proliferation while abrogating IL-3 mediated proliferation. These findings suggest that SOCS proteins may play a general co-operative role in the context of oncogenes which aberrantly activate STAT3/5 independently of JAK kinases. This study reveals a novel molecular mechanism of FLT3-ITD mediated leukemogenesis and suggests SOCS genes as potential therapeutic targets.

Role of rho GTPases in migration of stem and progenitor cells (2005)

Bithiah Grace Jaganthan

Stem cells capable of self-renewal and differentiation into multiple tissues are important in medicine to reconstitute the hematopoietic system after myelo-ablative chemo- or radiotherapy. In the present situation, adult stem cells such as Mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) and Hematopoietic stem cells (HSC) are used for therapeutic purposes. For tissue regeneration and tissue constitution, engraftment of transplanted stem cells is a necessary feature. However, in many instances, the transplanted stem cells reach the tissues with low efficiency. Considering the three-step model of leukocyte extravasation by Springer et al, the rolling, adhesion and transmigration form the three major steps for the transplanted stem cells to enter the desired tissues. One of the molecular switches reported to be involved in these mechanisms are the Rho family GTPases. The present study investigates the role of Rho GTPases in adhesion and migration of stem and progenitor cells. Chemotactic and chemokinetic migration assays, transendothelial migration assays, migration of cells under shear stress, microinjection, retroviral and lentiviral gene transfer methods, oligonucleotide microarray analysis and pull down assays were employed in this study for the elucidation of Rho GTPase involvement in migration and adhesion of stem and progenitor cells. The transmigration assay used for the migration determination of the adherent cell type, MSC, was optimized for the efficient and effective assessment of the migrating cells. The involvement of Rho was found to be critical for stem and progenitor cell migration where inactivation of Rho by C2I-C3 transferase toxin and/or overexpression of C3 transferase cDNA increased the migration rate of Hematopoietic progenitor cells (HPC) and MSC. Moreover, modulation of Rho caused predictable cytoskeletal and morphological changes in MSC. Assessment of Rho GTPase involvement in the interacting partner, the endothelial cells during stem cell migration, revealed that active Rho expression induced E-selectin expression. The increased levels of E-selectin were functionally confirmed by the increased adhesion of progenitor cells (HPC) to the Human umbilical vein endothelial cell (HUVEC) layer. Moreover, inhibition of Rac in the migrating endothelial progenitor cells (eEPC) increased their adhesion to HUVEC correlating with the increased percentage expression of cell surface receptor, CD44 in Rac inactivated eEPC. In conclusion, this study shows that Rho GTPases control the adhesion and migration of stem and progenitor cells, HPC and MSC. Rho inhibition drives the cells to migrate in the blood vessels. The substantial increase in the level of active Rho in endothelial layer, manifested by the E-selectin surface expression assists the better adhesion of stem and progenitor cells to the endothelial layer. Serum factors and growth factors in the physiological system influence the Rho GTPase expression in both migrating stem cells and the barrier endothelial cells. Thus, specific modulation of Rho GTPases in the transplanted stem and progenitor cells could be an interesting tool to improve the migration and homing processes of stem cells for cellular therapy in future.

Role of enhanced stem cell capacities in leukemogenesis (2006)

Xiaomin Zheng

Unlimited self-renewal is an absolute prerequisite for any malignancy, and is the ultimate arbiter of the continuous growth and metastasis of tumors. It has been suggested that the self-renewal properties of a tumor are exclusively contained within a small population, i.e., the so-called cancer stem cells. Enhanced self-renewal potential plays a pivotal role in the development of leukemia. My data have shown that APL associated translocation products PML/RARalpha and PLZF/RARalpha increased the replating efficiency of mouse lin-/Sca1+ hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs). This effect is partly mediated by induction of gamma–catenin which is an important mediator of the Wnt signaling pathway and has been shown to be up regulated by the AML associated translocation products(AATPs). Suppression of gamma–catenin by siRNA can abrogate the increased replating efficiency induced by AATPs. Transduction of gamma–catenin in lin-/Sca1+ HSCs led to increased replating efficiency and the expression of stem cell markers Sca1 and c-kit. Additionally it induced accelerated cell cycle progression of mouse bone marrow HSCs. Transduction/transplantation mouse models have shown that ectopic expression of gamma–catenin in HSCs led to acute myeloid leukemia without maturation. These data suggest important roles of Wnt signaling pathway in the leukemogenesis induced by PML/RARalpha, PLZF/RARalpha and AML1/ETO. In contrast to AATPs, CML and Ph+-ALL associated translocation products p185(BCR-ABL) and p210(BCR-ABL) did not affect the self-renewal potential of hematopoietic stem/progenitor cells. However my studies indicated that their reciprocal translocation products p40(ABL/BCR) and p96(ABL/BCR) actually increased the replating efficiency of hematopoietic stem/progenitor cells. The effect is stronger when induced by p96(ABL/BCR) than by p40(ABL/BCR). It is very intriguing that p96(ABL/BCR) can activate Wnt signaling and up regulate the expression of HoxB4. Transduction/transplantation mouse model has shown that p40(ABL/BCR) and p96(ABL/BCR) both have their own leukemogenic potential. Given the fact that leukemic stem cells maintain the growth of tumor and are the origin of relapse, the cure of leukemia is dependent on the eradication of the leukemic stem cell and abrogation of aberrantly regulated self-renewal capability. Both t-RA and As2O3 have been shown to induce complete remission in APL patients with PML/RARalpha translocation product. However, t-RA as a single agent achieves completeremission (CR) but not complete molecular remissions (CMR). Therefore, virtually all patients will experience a relapse within a few months. In contrast to t-RA, As2O3 as a single agent is able to induce CR as well as CMR followed by long-term relapse-free survival in about 50% of APL patients even if relapsed after treatment with t-RA-containing chemotherapy regimens. Nothing is known about the mechanisms leading to the complete different clinical outcomes by the two compounds although both have been shown to induce differentiation of blast cells, proliferation arrest, induction of apoptosis and degradation of PML/RARalpha. We investigated the effect of t-RA and arsenic on PML/RARalpha-expressing cell population with stem cell capacity derived from the APL cell line NB4 as well as Sca1+/lin- murine bone marrow cells. We found that t-RA did not reduce the replating efficiency in PML/RARalpha- and PLZF/RARalpha-infected Sca1+/lincells whereas it selected small compact colonies representing very early progenitor cells. T-RA was unable to reduce the capacity to form colony forming units-spleen (CFU-S) of Sca1+/lin-cells expressing PML/RARalpha, additionally t-RA did not impair the capability of engraftment of NB4 cells in NOD/SCID mouse. On the contrary to t-RA, As2O3 abolished the aberrant self-renewal potential of Sca1+/lin- cells expressing PML/RARalpha. As2O3 not only abolished the replating efficiency of PML/RARalpha positive cells but also completely abrogated the ability of PML/RARalpha-positive HSC to produce CFU-S in vivo. On the contrary to As2O3, t-RA increased the absolute cell number and the percentage of cells in the side population with respect to the whole cell population in NB4 cells. Taken together these data suggest that arsenic but not all-trans retinoic acid overcomes the aberrant stem cell capacity of PML/RARalpha positive leukemic stem cells. My data prove for the first time that there is a direct relationship between the capacity of compounds to effectively target the LSC and their capacity to eradicate the leukemia, and, thereby, to induce complete molecular remission and long-term relapse-free survival. Thus, in order to increase the curative potential of leukemia therapies, future studies need to include the effect of given compounds on the stem cell compartment to determine their ability to eradicate the LSC.

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