Refine
Year of publication
Document Type
- Doctoral Thesis (17)
Has Fulltext
- yes (17)
Is part of the Bibliography
- no (17)
Keywords
- BTEX (2)
- Grundwasserverschmutzung (2)
- bank filtration (2)
- degradation (2)
- 1,4-dioxane (1)
- Abbau (1)
- Albaner See (1)
- Alkylphenole (1)
- Anoxie (1)
- Atmospheric transport (1)
Institute
- Geowissenschaften (16)
- Biowissenschaften (1)
The biomarker record in two different lakes in central Europe, Lake Albano and Lake Constance, is used to reflect environmental changes and lake system response during the Late Glacial and Holocene. Extractable organic compounds in lake sediments, which can be assigned to their biological source (biomarkers) function as fingerprints of past aquatic or land plant organisms. Using gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry, 21 different biomarkers (predominantly steroids and triterpenoids) as well as a variety of n-alkanes, nalkanols, and n-alkanoic acids could be identified in the sediment records of Lake Albano and Lake Constance. In the Holocene sediments of Lake Albano, the distribution of biomarkers such as dinosterol (dinoflagellates), isoarborinol, and diplopterol (aquatic organisms) indicate three biomarker zones: The period between 0-3,800 years BP (zone 3) is characterized by high concentrations of these biomarkers and others such as tetrahymanol and diploptene. Conversely, zone 2 (3,800-6,500 years BP) shows very low concentrations of all autochthonous biomarkers. In zone 1 (6,500–11,480 years BP), dinosterol, isoarborinol, and diplopterol range on a relatively high level, whereas diploptene and tetrahymanol display comparatively low concentrations. The results suggest at least two distinct changes in the predominance of primary producers during the Holocene, which are related to changes in the lake system such as lake mixing and water column stratification. This interpretation is consistent with previous investigations of Lake Albano sediments including pigment and hydrogen index data (Ariztegui et al., 1996b; Guilizzoni et al., 2002). Allochthonous biomarkers such as long-chain n-alkanes, amyrenones and friedelin indicate a development from forest to a more open landscape from 6,000 and 5.000 years BP, respectively. After a period of high concentrations during the first half of the Holocene, all biomarkers derived from deciduous trees exhibit relatively low values until around 1,000 years BP. Again, this is consistent with results from previous pollen investigations (Ariztegui et al., 2000). The sediment core from Upper Lake Constance comprises the Late Glacial and Holocene. It was analysed for biomarkers and inorganic tracers in order to compare the biomarker results with other proxy data from the same core. Magnetic susceptibility (MS) was measured to get a high-resolution stratigraphic framework of the core and to obtain further information about changes of the proportions of allochthonous and autochthonous input. Enhanced concentrations and accumulation rates of dinosterol (biomarker for dinoflagellates) and biogenic calcite give evidence of increasing lake productivity at the beginning of the Holocene followed by a decrease in bioproductivity after around 7,000 years BP. Younger Dryas sediments are characterized by low amounts of both dinosterol and biogenic calcite indicating a low productivity. The comparison of the concentrations and accumulation rates of b-sitosterol and stigmastanol with parameters reflecting lake productivity suggests that both steroids in Lake Constance sediments are mainly derived from terrigenous sources. Biomarkers as well as concentrations and accumulation rates of allochthonous inorganic compounds such as titanium, magnesium and strontium indicate a slightly enhanced allochthonous input after 8,500 years BP. Significant increase of erosive matter input from enhanced soil erosion is not observed before 4,000 years BP. This can be attributed to the combined effects of precipitation increase as a result of climatic deterioration and anthropogenic deforestation which is consistent with observations from other lakes in Central Europe. The MS record of Lake Constance confirms these results by tracing the climatically induced shifts of more intense bioproduction (low MS caused by increased calcite deposition) during the ‘climatic optimum’. This is followed by increasing input of terrigenous sediment compounds during colder and wetter periods which lead to higher MS values in the lake sediments. The occurrence of tetrahymanol in Lake Constance sediments questions the unambiguous use of tetrahymanol as an indicator for water column stratification. Anaerobic organic macroaggregates within the oxygenated, photic zone of the water column have to be considered as a possible living space for anaerobic microorganisms containing tetrahymanol. The direct comparison of two very different lakes Albano and Constance with respect to biomarkers indicating climate or environmental change provides a contribution to the recent biomarker research for a better understanding of biomarkers in lacustrine sediments.
Zur Erkundung der Depotfunktion von quellfähigen Tonmineralen für organische Umweltchemikalien und der möglichen Verdrängung dieser Chemikalien durch biogene Tenside wurden kinetische Untersuchungen mit Hilfe von Batch-Experimenten durchgeführt. Dabei wurde zunächst das Adsorptions- und Desorptionsverhalten von ausgesuchten Umweltchemikalien an mineralische Festphasen und danach die Verdrängung dieser Chemikalien durch biogene Tenside untersucht. Als Umweltchemikalien dienten in den Experimenten Di-(n-butyl)phthalat (DBP) und Di-(2-ethylhexyl)phthalat (DEHP), die in industriellem Maßstab hauptsächlich als Weichmacher in Kunststoffen verwendet werden und fünf ausgewählte polycyclische aromatische Kohlenwasserstoffe (PAK), die bei pyrolytischen Prozessen sowie der unvollständigen Verbrennung organischen Materials entstehen. In den durchgeführten Versuchsreihen dienten ein smektitreicher Bentonit, Quarzsand und Gemische aus diesen beiden Stoffen mit verschiedenen Gewichtsanteilen der Bentonit- und Sandphase sowie Seesand als Adsorbermedium für die Umweltchemikalien. Diese Variationen sollten das unterschiedliche Verhalten der verschiedenen Festphasen bezüglich der drei untersuchten Prozesse (Adsorption, Desorption und Austausch) mit den Chemikalien verdeutlichen. Untersuchungen am verwendeten Bentonit ergaben, daß sein Hauptbestandteil ein Calcium- Montmorillonit war. Der Montmorillonit ist ein quellfähiges, dioktaedrisches Tonmineral aus der Gruppe der Smektite. Die Quellfähigkeit dieses Smektits wurde in Quellversuchen mit Ethylenglykol und Glycerin mittels Röntgendiffraktometrie festgestellt. Die chemische Zusammensetzung des Minerals wurde mit Röntgenfluoreszenzmessungen analysiert. Mit dem Greene-Kelly-Test wurde der Montmorillonit als smektitischer Anteil im Bentonit identifiziert. Im Laufe einer jeden Versuchsreihe sind nacheinander drei Prozesse mit jeder Probe im Labor untersucht worden: 1. Adsorption von Umweltchemikalien (Phthalate und PAK) an Sandproben mit unterschiedlichen Tongehalten und an reinen Tonproben. 2. Desorption der adsorbierten Umweltchemikalien aus den Sand/Ton-Gemischen und Tonproben in vier Schritten. 3. Austausch dieser Chemikalien aus den Sand/Ton-Gemischen und Tonproben gegen biogene Tenside. Im ersten Schritt der Batch-Experimente wurden die beiden Phthalate bzw. die PAK (Naphthalin, Acenaphthen, Fluoren, Phenanthren und Fluoranthen) aus einer wässrigen Lösung an die mineralischen Festphasen adsorbiert. Die Phthalate wurden in einem 1:1 Verhältnis in den Experimenten eingesetzt, die fünf PAK als ein Gemisch oder auch einzeln. Für die PAKAdsorption wurde auch eine Wasser-Aceton-Mischung beim Adsorptionsversuch verwendet, da sich dadurch ihre Löslichkeit erheblich verbessern ließ und die kinetischen Reihenversuche bezüglich der Gleichgewichtseinstellung wesentlich gleichmäßiger verliefen. Die Proben wurden 20 Stunden lang bis zur Einstellung des Gleichgewichts im Überkopfmischer geschüttelt. Die festen Phasen wurden danach von den wässrigen Phasen getrennt und zur Ermittlung der Einstellung des Desorptionsgleichgewichts weiterverwendet. Die wässrigen Phasen wurden mit organischen Lösemitteln extrahiert und der Gehalt an Umweltchemikalien gaschromatographisch quantifiziert. Die verbliebenen Festphasen wurden jeweils viermal mit frischem, destilliertem Wasser 20 Stunden lang zur Ermittlung des Gleichgewichts der Desorption geschüttelt, wobei nach Abtrennung der wässrigen Phasen diese auf ihren Organikgehalt hin wie oben beschrieben untersucht wurden. An diese vier Desorptionsschritte schloß sich das Verdrängungsexperiment einer Versuchsreihe an. Hierbei wurden verseifte, langkettige biogene Tenside (Alkoholate und Carbonsäuresalze mit geradzahliger Anzahl der Kohlenstoffatome) zu jeder Probe hinzugegeben und jede Festphase nochmals mit frischem Wasser im Überkopfmischer geschüttelt. In diesem Schritt sollte überprüft werden, ob die in den Festphasen verbliebenen Phthalate und PAK durch Zugabe von biogenen Tensiden in höherem Maße in der wässrigen Phase wiedergefunden werden als dies aus dem jeweiligen Desorptionsgleichgewicht zu erwarten war. Mit den Ergebnissen konnten Adsorptionsisothermen (nur für Phthalate) aufgenommen und Angaben zur Einstellung des Desorptionsgleichgewichts oder dessen Störung nach Austauschexperimenten gemacht werden. Die Auswertung der Adsorptionsexperimente ergab, daß Festphasen mit Bentonitanteil befähigt sind, einen höheren Anteil an Phthalaten und PAK zu adsorbieren als reine Sandproben. Bei kleinen Phthalatkonzentrationen wurde DEHP aufgrund einer stärkeren Affinität zur Festphase besser adsorbiert als DBP. Stiegen die Phthalatzugaben, so wurde DBP in höherem Maße als DEHP adsorbiert. Dies wurde durch eine bessere Einlagerung der DBP-Moleküle in die innerkristallinen Zwischenschichten des Montmorillonit-Minerals ermöglicht (Interkalation). Röntgenographisch wurde ein deutlich vergrößerter Wert für den Schichtabstand im Montmorillonit nachgewiesen als im ursprünglichem Zustand (bis zu 18 Å gegenüber 15,3 Å). Die Desorptionsisothermen zeigten für Festphasen mit Quarzsandanteilen häufig ein ungleichmäßiges Verhalten. So wurde häufig im zweiten und dritten Desorptionsschritt eine unerwartet hohe Menge an Phthalaten in der wässrigen Lösung gefunden. Reine Bentonitproben zeigten dagegen eine gleichmäßige Konzentrationsabnahme der Phthalate nach jedem Desorptionsschritt. Der eingesetzte Bentonit war in der Lage, Phthalate stärker von der Desorption zurückzuhalten als Quarzsand. Die Einstellung des Desorptionsgleichgewichts erfolgte mit reinem Bentonit schneller als bei Sandproben oder Sand-Bentonit Gemischen. Bei Austauschexperimenten, in denen die ursprünglich eingesetzte Menge an Phthalaten unter 1 mg lag, wurden keine Verdrängungsprozesse festgestellt. Stiegen die Konzentrationen der Phthalate (bis zu ca. 200 mg), so kam es aufgrund der größeren Oberflächenbelegung im Montmorillonit zu Verdrängungsprozessen der Phthalate durch biogene Tenside. Die Extraktion der wässrigen Lösung ergab nach dem Austauschexperiment eine höhere Menge an Phthalaten als es aus dem Desorptionsexperimenten erwartet worden war. Insgesamt wurde mehr DBP als DEHP nach den Austauschexperimenten in der wässrigen Lösung gefunden. Da DBP besser als DEHP in die Zwischenschichten des Montmorillonits eingebaut wurde, konnte auch diese Feststellung damit erklärt werden, daß biogene Tenside die Phthalate aus den innerkristallinen Zwischenschichten verdrängen. Bei PAK wurden Verdrängungsprozesse nur im Falle von Phenanthren festgestellt. Bei anderen in den Experimenten eingesetzten PAK (vorwiegend Naphthalin, Acenaphthen und Fluoren) war offenbar der Dampfdruck so groß, daß vor dem Austauschexperiment nicht mehr genügend organisches Material in der Bodenprobe adsorbiert war. Bei parallel durchgeführten Versuchen mit reinem Quarzsand und mit Seesand als Festphase wurde dagegen weder bei Phthalaten noch PAK eine wesentliche Störung des Desorptionsgleichgewichts in der Größenordnung der bentonithaltigen Proben nach dem Verdrängungsexperiment festgestellt. Dies ist ein Hinweis darauf, daß Verdrängungsprozesse bevorzugt auf Oberflächen von Tonmineralen stattfinden. Insgesamt konnte mit dieser Arbeit gezeigt werden, daß Gleichgewichtseinstellungen von Umweltchemikalien an Tonmineralen durch biogene Tenside gestört werden können. Durch die Einwirkung der biogenen Tenside kommt es zu einer verstärkten Desorption der Umweltchemikalien aus den Tonmineralen.
Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde zunächst ein Vorschlag für eine Direktive zur Anwendung von Monitored Natural Attenuation (MNA) an Grundwasserschadensfällen durch Mineralölprodukte unter Berücksichtigung der in Deutschland geltenden Vorgaben für eine konkrete technische Durchführung erarbeitet. Das darin enthaltene Untersuchungs- und Auswertungsprogramm zum Nachweis von Natural Attenuation (NA) berücksichtigt die gesetzlichen Regelungen des Bundes-Bodenschutzgesetzes (BBodSchG) und der BundesBodenschutz- und Altlastenverordnung (BBodSchV). Das entwickelte Untersuchungs- und Auswertungsprogramm wurde in einem weiteren Schritt an einer laufenden MNA-Maßnahme aus der Praxis überprüft. Hierfür wurde ein Kerosin-kontaminierter Teilbereich am Standort des ehemaligen Militärflughafens Wegberg-Wildenrath in Nordrhein-Westfalen ausgewählt. Im Grundwasser liegt eine Kontamination überwiegend aus aromatischen Kohlenwasserstoffen (BTEX und weitere alkylierte Aromaten) sowie MKW (H18) vor. Anhand des Praxisbeispiels wurde die generelle Verwendbarkeit von bereits im Rahmen der bisherigen Altlastenbearbeitung erhobenen Daten im Sinne des erarbeiteten Untersuchungsprogramms aufgezeigt. Hydrogeologische Untersuchungen belegten eine Abhängigkeit der Konzentration von Schadstoffen im Wasser von einem bis zu /- 1,7 m schwankenden Grundwasserstand, wodurch ein instationäres Fahnenverhalten vorlag. Aufbauend auf den Erkenntnissen der hydrogeologischen Erkundung und der Auswertung von hydrochemischen Daten wurden für den Standort zwei sich ergänzende konzeptionelle Modellvorstellungen (ein hydrochemisches Modell sowie ein hydrodynamisches Modell) bezüglich der Prozesse, die das Fahnenverhalten steuern, entwickelt. Beim hydrochemischen Modell erfolgt durch schwankende Grundwasserstände ein Recycling der Elektronenakzeptoren S042- und Fe3 für den Schadstoffabbau im herdnahen Bereich. Bei hohem Grundwasserstand werden reduzierte Eisenspezies als unlösliche Eisenmonosulfide ausgefällt. Bei niedrigem Grundwasserstand werden diese Eisenmonosulfide in Folge von Belüftung zu löslichen Fe3 /SO42-haltigen Mischkristallen oxidiert. Bei einem erneuten Anstieg des Grundwassers steht dieser Elektronenakzeptorpool für einen weiteren Schadstoffabbau zur Verfügung, was wiederum zur Ausfällung der reduzierten Eisenspezies führt. Beim hydrodynamischen Modell werden die beobachteten Konzentrationsänderungen im Grundwasser hauptsächlich durch Schadstoff-Phasenübergänge und der Größe der dabei zur Verfügung stehenden Grenzflächen hervorgerufen. Der Austausch von Schadstoffen aus der NAPL (non-aqueous phase liquids)-Phase in die Bodenluft bei niedrigen Grundwasserständen ist erheblich größer im Vergleich zum Austausch der NAPL-Phase in die (Grund)wasserphase bei hohen Grundwasserständen. Daraus resultieren höhere Schadstoffgehalte im Schadenszentrum bei niedrigen Grundwasserständen und geringere Gehalte bei hohen Grundwasserständen. Eine wichtige Erkenntnis dieser Arbeit war die Herausarbeitung der Art des Einflusses schwankender Grundwasserstände auf die Fahnendynamik. Anhand der Untersuchung auf aromatische Säuren (Metabolite), die im (my)g/l-Bereich nachzuweisen waren, konnte der direkte Beweis für einen aktiven Bioabbau am Standort erbracht werden. Durch einen Vergleich des Aromatenspektrums mit dem vorgefundenen Metabolitenspektrum wurden Aussagen zum Abbauverhalten von einzelnen aromatischen Schadstoffgruppen ermöglicht. Die Abbauprognose ist aufgrund des instationären Fahnenverhaltens mit größeren Unsicherheiten behaftet. Attenuations- bzw. Abbauraten zwischen 0,0003 * 1/d und 0,001 * 1/d wurden anhand von zwei unterschiedlichen Verfahren ermittelt.
The present study was elaborated within the scope of the INTAFERE (Integrated Analysis of Mobile Organic Foreign Substances in Rivers) project which investigates the occurrence of xenobiotics in small freshwater streams with particular consideration of social impact factors. The aim of this study is to investigate the seasonal and spatial variance of organic micropollutants in small fresh water streams and to identify possible sources and sinks. Therefore four small freshwater river systems in Hesse, Germany, have been investigated with respect to common organic pollutants such as: the organophosphates tri-n-butyl phosphate (TBP), tris(2-butoxyethyl)phosphate (TBEP), tris(2-chloroethyl)phosphate (TCEP), tris(1-chloro-2-propyl)phosphate (TCPP), and tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl)phosphate (TDCPP), the synthetic musk fragrances 1,3,4,6,7,8-hexahydro-4,6,6,7,8,8-hexa-methylcyclopenta-[g]-2-benzopyran (HHCB) and 7-acetyl-1,1,3,4,4,6-hexamethyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydronaphthalene (AHTN), the endocrine disruptors bisphenol A (BPA), 4-tert-octylphenol (OP) and the technical isomer mixture of 4-nonylphenol (NP), the herbicide terbutryn [2-(t-butylamino)-4-(ethylamino)-6-(methylthio)-s-triazine] as well as the insect repellent N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide (DEET). Water samples were collected in the time span from September 2003 to September 2006 at 26 sampling locations. The samples were extracted with solid phase extraction (SPE) and analyzed by coupled gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). For quantification the internal standard method was used. The results of the study showed an ubiquitous occurrence of organic pollutants in the fresh water streams of the study area. The organophosphates have been detected in 90 % of the water samples with mean concentrations of 502 ng/l (TCPP), 276 ng/l (TBP), 183 ng/l (TBEP), 118 ng/l (TCEP) and 117 ng/l (TDCPP). Sewage treatment plant (STP) effluents were identified as the dominating source for the chlorinated organophosphates as well as for the synthetic musk fragrances and the insect repellent DEET in the river systems. Consequently the highest concentrations were observed in the Schwarzbach system characterized by the highest proportion of waste water compared to the other river systems. Mean concentration levels of the synthetic musk fragrances HHCB and ATHN were 141 ng/l and 46 ng/l, respectively and 124 ng/l in case of DEET. The synthetic musk fragrances showed a clear seasonal trend with significantly lower concentrations in summer times compared to winter times, which is ascribed to stronger photodegradation and volatization during summer times. In contrast, mean DEET concentrations and loads were significantly higher in summer than in autumn, winter and spring, in parallel with the main insect season. The concentrations of the endocrine disruptors BPA, NP and OP in the river water samples ranged from <20 ng/l to 1927 ng/l, <10 ng/l to 770 ng/l, and <10 ng/l to 420 ng/l, respectively. Whereas OP was present in about 2/3 of the samples, NP and BPA could only be detected in 56% and 13% of the water samples, respectively. BPA levels exceeded in two samples the predicted no-effect concentration (PNEC) for water organisms. In case of NP, highest concentrations and loads were found in September 2003 and decreased significantly since then. In contrast, concentrations and loads of OP which serves in a similar application field remained nearly constant during the sampling period. The decrease of NP can be attributed to the implementation of the European Directive 2003/53/EG, which restricts the use of nonylphenols and nonylphenol ethoxylates since January 2005. However, at the end of the sampling period in September 2006, NP could still be detected at mean concentrations of 18 ng/l in the river waters of the sampling area. Furthermore, absence of NP in several samples from associated STP effluents indicate that the STPs cannot be the only sources for NP found in the river water. The herbicide terbutryn was present in the rivers during the whole sampling period from September 2003 to September 2006 despite a ban on its use as a herbicide from January 2004 on. Terbutryn levels ranged from < 4 ng/l to 5600 ng/l, showing a clear spatial pattern with high terbutryn concentrations in the Weschnitz and Modau river systems and significantly lower terbutryn levels in Schwarzbach and Winkelbach. Results from the analysis of two STP effluents discharging into the Weschnitz and the Modau, respectively, indicate that terbutryn enters the rivers from this source. Furthermore, terbutryn concentrations and loads showed a clear seasonal trend with significantly higher levels in summer and autumn. Obviously, the ban on agricultural use of terbutryn at the end of 2003 had no discernable influence on terbutryn concentration in the rivers because there was no trend of decreasing.
The present PhD-thesis was prepared within subproject B8 of the DFG-Sonderforschungsbereich (SFB) 641 “The Tropospheric Ice Phase”. The subproject B8 was entitled “Interactions of volatile organic compounds with airborne ice crystals”. Results of previous studies have shown that various volatile organic compounds (VOC) and semivolatile organic compounds (SVOC) are incorporated into the atmospheric ice phase and several uptake mechanisms are discussed in the literature. The aim of this study was to identify the dominating VOC and SVOC in airborne snow collected at Jungfraujoch in the Swiss Alps (3580 m asl) and to study in laboratory experiments the uptake mechanism of organic compounds into snow and ice. For this purpose an analytical method to analyse freshly fallen snow samples was developed and evaluated in a first step. The method consists of headspace (HS) solid phase dynamic extraction (SPDE) followed by gas chromatography combined with mass spectrometry (GC/MS). During the extraction process a new cooling device was successfully integrated into the HS-SPDE-GC/MS method to enhance the extraction yield. Extraction and desorption parameters such as the number of extraction cycles, extraction temperature, desorption volume and desorption flow rate have been optimized. Detection limits for benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, m-, p-, o- xylene (BTEX) ranged from 19 ng L-1 (benzene) to 30 ng L-1 (m/p-xylene), while those for C6-C10 n-aldehydes ranged from 21 ng L-1 (n-heptanal) to 63 ng L-1 (n-hexanal). Furthermore, freshly fallen snow samples were collected at the High Altitude Research Station Jungfraujoch (3580 m asl, Switzerland) during the field campaigns “Cloud and aerosol characterization experiment” (CLACE) 4 and 5 in February and March 2005 and 2006, respectively. Freshly fallen snow samples collected directly in-cloud on a high altitude remote location were used as approximation of airborne ice crystals since sampling of airborne ice crystals in quantities sufficient for analysis of individual organic compounds is not yet possible. In the collected snow samples a wide range of organic compounds were identified, namely BTEX, n-aldehydes (C6-C10), terpenes, chlorinated hydrocarbons and alkylated monoaromatics. The most abundant organic compounds in snow samples from Jungfaujoch during CLACE 4 and 5 were n-hexanal with a median concentration of 1.324 μg L-1 (CLACE 5) followed by n-nonanal (CLACE 5) with a median concentration of 1.239 μg L-1. High concentration variations of the analytes in snow samples collected at the same time at the same place argue for a heterogeneous composition of snow and ice. Several indicators were found that the origin of the n-aldehydes in the snow can be attributed to direct biogenic emissions from vegetation and indirect biogenic emissions through photochemical oxidation of fatty acids and alkenes. In a second step laboratory experiments were carried out to clarify the uptake mechanism of volatile and semivolatile organic compounds into snow/ice. Organic compounds can be incorporated into the atmospheric ice phase either by the process of gas scavenging, liquid scavenging (riming) or particle scavenging. Gas scavenging (incorporation of the organic compounds from the gas phase during growing of ice crystals) revealed to be ineffective based on previous laboratory experiments in which ice crystals were growing in the presence of aromatic hydrocarbons (BTEX) in the gas phase. In the present study the process of liquid scavenging (riming) was investigated in the laboratory using aqueous standard solutions containing BTEX, naldehydes (C6-C10), methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) and ethyl tert-butyl ether (ETBE). The headspace above the standard solution was sampled after adjusting the aqueous solutions to definite temperatures by use of a thermostat. Measurement were carried out at 25°C, 15°C and 5°C (water), -5°C and -15°C (supercooled water) and -25°C (ice). Results have shown that the known trend of lower gas phase concentrations over water concomitant with lower temperatures (Henry’s Law) is only valid for temperatures above 0°C. At temperature below 0°C, increasing concentrations of the analytes (BTEX, MTBE, ETBE and n-aldehydes) were determined in the gas phase together with decreasing temperatures. Dimensionless Henry’s law coefficients (KAW) were calculated from the concentrations of the organic compounds in the headspace above the standard solutions at temperatures between 25°C and -25°C. The observed inversion of Henry’s law coefficients of volatile and semivolatile organic compounds at a water temperature of approximately 0°C is explained by the formation of ordered zones of H2O molecules in supercooled water called “ice-like-clusters”. Together with decreasing temperatures the degree of formation of ordered zones increases which results in the removal of the organic molecules from the liquid phase and transfer into the gas phase. At a temperature of -25°C the supercooled water is converted into ice and a further significant increase of the gas phase concentrations of hydrophobic compounds such as BTEX is observed. In comparison, less hydrophobic compounds such as MTBE, ETBE and n-aldehydes are detected in lower amounts in the gas phase above the water/ice phase due to the higher water solubility and lower Henry coefficients compared to BTEX. The results show that in the absence of particles the uptake of BTEX MTBE, ETBE and C6-C10-naldehydes into ice not enhanced during freezing of a supercooled liquid, since at -25°C for these analytes the concentrations in the gas phase are higher at -25°C (ice) compared with -15°C (supercooled liquid). The heterogeneous distribution of BTEX and n-aldehydes concentrations in snow samples collected during the CLACE field campaigns suggests that adsorption of the organic compounds to particles followed by incorporation of the particles into the snow and ice might play a major role in the uptake process of organic compounds into snow and ice. To increase the knowledge about uptake processes of organic compounds into snow and ice further experiments are required with should include aerosol particles in the experimental setup to evaluate the influence of particle scavenging in the uptake processes.
The crude oil constituents benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and the three xylene isomers (BTEX) are the dominating groundwater contaminants originating from surface spill accidents by oil production facilities and with gasoline and jet fuel. Thereby BTEX posing a threat to the world´s scarce drinking water resources due to their water solubility and toxicity. An active remediation cleanup involving a BTEX event proves not only to be very expensive but almost impossible when it comes to the complete removal of contaminants from the subsurface. A favoured and common practice is combining an active remediation process focussing on the source of contamination coupled together with the monitoring of the residual contamination in the subsurface (monitored natural attenuation; MNA). MNA include all naturally occuring biological, chemical and physical processes in the subsurface. The general goal of this work was to improve the knowledge of biodegradation of aromatic hydrocarbons under anaerobic conditions in groundwater. For this groundwater and soil at the former military underground storage tank (UST) site Schäferhof – Süd near Nienburg/Weser (Niedersachsen, Germany) were sampled and analysed. The investigations were done in collaboration of the Umweltbundesamt, the universitys of Frankfurt and Bremen and the alphacon GmbH Ganderkesee. To investigate the extent of groundwater contamination, the terminal electron acceptor processes (TEAPs) and the metabolites of BTEX degradation in groundwater, six observation wells were sampled at regular intervals between January 2002 and September 2004. The wells were positioned in order to cover the upstream, the source area and the downstream of the presumed contamination source. Additionally, vertical sediment profiles were sampled and investigated with respect to spreading and concentration of BTEX in the subsurface. A large residual contamination involving BTEX is present in soil and groundwater at the studied locality. Maximum BTEX concentration values of 17 mg/kg were recorded in analysing sediment in the unsaturated zone. In the capillary fringe, values of 450 mg/kg were recorded (October 2004) and in the saturated zone maximum values of 6.7 mg/kg BTEX were detected. The groundwater samples indicate increasing BTEX concentrations in the groundwater flow direction (from 532 µg/l up to 3300 µg/l (mean values)). Biodegradation of aromatic hydrocarbons under anaerobic conditions in the sub surface at contaminated sites is characterised by generation of metabolites. From the monoaromatic hydrocarbons BTEX metabolites such as benzoic acid (BA) and the methylated homologs and C1-and C2-benzyl-succinic acids (BSA) are generated as intermediates. A solid-phase extraction method based on octadecyl-bonded silica sorbent has been developed to concentrate such metabolite compounds from water samples followed by derivatization and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) of the extracts. The recovery rate range between 75 and 97%. The method detection limit was 0.8 µg/l. Organic acids were identified as metabolic by-products of biodegradation. Benzoic acid, C1-, C2- and C3-benzoic acid were determined in all contaminated wells with considerable concentrations. Furthermore, the depletion of the dominant terminal electron acceptors (TEAs) oxygen, nitrate, and sulphate and the production of dissolved ferrous iron and methane in groundwater indicate biological mediated processes in the plume evidently proving the occurrence of NA. A large overlap of different redox zones at the studied part of the plume has been observed. A important finding in this study is the strong influence of groundwater level fluctuations on the BTEX concentration in groundwater. A very dry summer in 2003 was recorded during the monitoring period, resulting on site in a drop of the groundwater level to 1.7 m and a concomitant increase of BTEX concentrations from 240 µg/l to 1300 µg/l. The groundwater level fluctuations, natural degradation and retention processes essentially influence BTEX concentrations in the groundwater. Groundwater level fluctuations have by far a stronger influence than the influence of biological degradation. Increasing BTEX concentrations are hence not a consequence of limited biological degradation. Another part of the study was to observe the isotopic fractionation of the electron acceptor Fe(III), due to biologically mediated reduction of Fe(III) to the watersoluble Fe(II) at the site and first field data are presented. Both groundwater and sediment samples were analysed with respect to their Fe isotopic compositions using high mass resolution Multi Collector-Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry (MC-ICP-MS). The delta56Fe -values of groundwater samples taken from observation wells located downstream of the source area were isotopically lighter than delta56Fe -values obtained from groundwater in the uncontaminated well. The Fe isotopic composition of most parts of the sediment profile was similar to the Fe isotopic composition of uncontaminated groundwater. Thus, a significant iron isotope fractionation can be observed between sediment and groundwater downstream of the BTEX contamination.
Within the present study the occurrence and fate of the organophosphorus flame retardants and plasticizers tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP), tris(2-chloro-1-methylethyl) phosphate (TCPP), tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TDCP), tris(2-butoxyethyl) phosphate (TBEP), tri-iso-butyl phosphate (TiBP), and tri-n-butyl phosphate (TnBP) in precipitation, lake water, surface runoff and groundwater from urban and remote areas in Germany was investigated between June 2007 and October 2009. 255 samples of precipitation, 210 samples of lentic surface water and 72 samples of groundwater were analyzed for the six organophosphates (OPs) by solid phase extraction followed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The research focused on aspects concerning (1) the atmospheric washout of OPs by precipitation, (2) the temporal variation of OP concentrations in precipitation and in lentic surface waters as well as (3) the pollution of groundwater by OPs. The results of the study emphasize the importance of precipitation as an all-season entry-pathway for OPs in the aquatic environment, particularly in densely populated urban environments with high traffic volume and abundant usage of flame-protected products. No seasonal trends were observed for all analytes in precipitation at the urban sampling site. TCPP dominated in all precipitation and storm water holding tank (SWHT) water samples with maximum levels exceeding 1 µg/L. An accumulation of OPs deposited in SWHTs was observed with concentrations often exceeding those observed in wet precipitation. Median concentrations of TCPP (880 ng/L), TDCP (13 ng/L), and TBEP (77 ng/L) at the urban SWHT were more than twice as high as those measured at the urban precipitation sampling site (403 ng/L, 5 ng/L, 21 ng/L) located close to the SWHT. OP levels in more remote lakes were often below or close to the limits of quantitation (LOQ). Nevertheless, TCPP was the substance with the highest median concentration in rural volcanic lakes (7–18 ng/L) indicating an atmospheric transport of the compound. At urban lakes the median OP concentrations were in the range of 23–61 ng/L (TCEP), 85–126 ng/L (TCPP), <LOQ–53 ng/L (TBEP), 8–10 ng/L (TiBP), and 17–32 ng/L (TnBP). In laboratory experiments, TBEP, TiBP, and TnBP were photochemically degraded in spiked lake water samples upon exposure to sunlight. In the SWHT a seasonal trend with decreasing concentrations in summer/autumn was evident for TiBP and TnBP but not for the chlorinated OPs. The decreasing concentrations can be explained by in-lake photodegradation. Results have also shown that the occurrence of OPs in groundwater is depending on the anthropogenic impact during groundwater recharge/natural replenishment. Infiltration of precipitation was found to be no important entry-pathway for OPs into aquifers at rural sites. Highest OP concentrations (>0.1 µg/L) were determined in groundwater polluted by percolating leachate from contaminated sites or groundwater recharged via bank filtration of OP-loaded recipients. Concentrations of TCEP, TCPP, TiBP and TnBP in groundwater decreased rapidly (89–97%) during bank filtration with increasing distance from the recipient due to adsorption processes and/or biotransformation. Although TCEP and TCPP are stable within the aquifer, they are not suitable as conservative organic tracers in groundwater.
Occurrence and sources of 2,4,7,9-tetramethyl-5-decyne-4,7-diol (TMDD) in the aquatic environment
(2011)
The aim of the present study was to identify the sources of 2,4,7,9-tetramethyl-5-decyne-4,7-
diol (TMDD) into the aquatic environment and to investigate its occurrence in rivers and
wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). Therefore, TMDD was analyzed in 441 wastewater
samples from influents and effluents of 27 municipal WWTPs, in 6 sludge samples, in 52
wastewater samples from 3 sewage systems of municipal WWTPs, in 489 surface samples
from 24 rivers, in 9 wastewater samples of 3 paper-recycling industries and in 65 groundwater
samples. TMDD was also analyzed in household paper products, in 23 samples of toilet
papers, in 5 types of paper towels and in 12 types of paper tissues. The samples were collected
between 2007 and 2011. The water samples were extracted with solid phase extraction (SPE)
and the household paper samples with Soxhlet extraction. Gas chromatography-mass
spectrometry (GC-MS) was used for quantification purposes.
Between November 2007 and January 2008, TMDD was detected in the river Rhine at Worms
with permanent high concentrations (up to 1330 ng/L). The results showed that TMDD is
uniformly distributed across the river at Worms. An increase of the mean TMDD
concentration from approximately 500 ng/L to 1000 ng/L was registered in January 2008. Due
to the minor fluctuations of the TMDD concentration during the sampling period it is
expected that the input of TMDD into the river is continuous. Therefore, TMDD might rather
originate from effluents of municipal WWTPs than from temporal sources. The mean TMDD
load based on the analysis of 147 water samples collected in the River Rhine was 62.8 kg/d
which is equivalent to 23 t/a suggesting that TMDD must be used and/or produced in high
quantities in order to be found in those high concentrations. To determine if TMDD is
discharged by effluents of municipal WWTPs into the rivers, 24 hours influent and effluent
samples of four municipal WWTPs in the Frankfurt/Rhine-Main metropolitan region were
collected during November 2008 and February 2010 and analyzed for TMDD. The TMDD
influent concentrations varied between 134 ng/L and 5846 ng/L and the effluent
concentrations between <LOQ (limit of quantitation) and 3539 ng/L. The TMDD elimination
rates in the four WWTPs varied between 33% and 68%. The results showed that effluents of
municipal WWTPs are an important source of TMDD in the aquatic environment because
TMDD is not completely removed from the sewage during the wastewater treatment. Weekly
and daily variations of the TMDD concentration in the influents of two municipal WWTPs
indicated that both private households and indirect industrial dischargers contribute to the
introduction of TMDD into the municipal sewage systems. A more detailed study of the
TMDD elimination rate in the different wastewater treatment stages was carried out in the
WWTP Niederrad/Griesheim in Frankfurt am Main. The results showed that the removal of
TMDD is mainly carried out during the aerobic biological treatments, where the elimination
rate was 46%. In contrast, during the anoxic treatment the removal efficiency was only 1.4%
and during the mechanical treatment the elimination rate was 19%.
To determine the sources of TMDD in the sewage, household paper products (paper tissues,
toilet papers and paper towels) were analyzed for TMDD using Soxhlet extraction. TMDD
was detected in 83% of the samples (n=40). The highest mean TMDD concentrations were
found in recycled toilet paper (0.20 μg/g) and in paper towels (0.11 μg/g). In paper tissues and
non-recycled toilet paper the mean TMDD concentrations were lower 0.080 μg/g and
0.025 μg/g respectively. According to these results the high TMDD influent concentrations
found previously in municipal WWTPs (mean 1.20 μg/L) cannot be explained due to
migration of TMDD from the household paper products into the sewage. Thus indirect
industrial dischargers are the cause of the high influent TMDD concentrations. Effluents of
municipal WWTPs with different indirect industrial dischargers (textile-, metal processing-,
food processing-, electroplating-, paper-recycling- and printing ink factories) were analyzed.
The highest mean TMDD concentrations were found in the effluents of municipal WWTPs
that have paper-recycling (71.3 μg/L) and printing ink factories (138 μg/L) as indirect
industrial dischargers. These results were confirmed by analyzing process wastewater of three
paper-recycling factories located in Germany. High TMDD concentrations were detected and
fluctuated between 1.83 μg/L and 113 μg/L. TMDD was also analyzed in the wastewater of a
non-recycling-paper factory but its concentration was much lower (0.066 μg/L) indicating that
TMDD is introduced into the processing water during the papermaking process due to the use
of waste paper. Analyses of wastewater samples from different parts of the sewage pipes of a
municipal WWTP in Hesse, which receives the wastewater from a printing ink factory, were
carried out. The TMDD concentration in the wastewater sample from the sewage pipe of the
printing ink factory was much higher (3,300 μg/L) than the TMDD concentration detected in
the other wastewater samples from the sewage system (0.030 μg/L – 0.89 g/L). These results
confirm the printing ink production as one of the principal sources of TMDD in the sewage.
Analysis of surface water samples of the River Modau downstream from the effluent of the
WWTP Nieder-Ramstadt showed TMDD concentrations of up to 28.0 μg/L. These high
TMDD concentrations might be caused by the indirect wastewater discharges of a paint
factory connected to the municipal sewage system. These results indicate that TMDD is
introduced into the municipal WWTPs principally by indirect industrial dischargers and they
are mainly paint and printing ink factories. The paper-recycling factories also represent an
important source of TMDD in municipal WWTPs but indirectly. According to statements
given by the representatives of two paper recycling factories neither TMDD or any other
TMDD containing product is used or added during the papermaking process. Therefore,
TMDD is washed out from the printing inks of the coloured waste paper and concentrated in
the process wastewater in the closed water circuits of paper-recycling factories reaching rivers
and municipal WWTPs.
The occurrence and distribution of TMDD in surface waters in Germany was also studied.
The results showed that TMDD is widely distributed across different rivers systems in the
federal states of Hesse, North-Rhine-Westphalia, Bavaria, Baden-Wuerttemberg and
Rhineland-Palatinate. In Hesse, TMDD was detected in the some of main rivers with mean
concentrations of 812 ng/L (Schwarzbach, Hessian Ried), 374 ng/L (Kinzig), 393 ng/L (Main,
at Frankfurt), 539 ng/L (Werra), 326 ng/L (Fulda), 151 ng/L (Emsbach) and 161 ng/L
(Nidda). In small rivers (creeks) the mean TMDD concentrations varied between <LOQ
(Diemel, Urselbach) and 1890 ng/L (Darmbach). The results showed that the TMDD
concentrations in creeks are highly influenced by both effluents of WWTPs and by the
distance between the sampling point and the nearest WWTP. Surface samples from sampling
locations downstream from WWTPs dischargers showed higher TMDD concentrations (mean
518 ng/L) than sampling locations upstream from WWTPs dischargers (mean 35.1 ng/L).
The behavior of TMDD during bank filtration was investigated at two locations, at a water
utility company at the Lower River Rhine (urban area) and at the Oderbruch polder (rural
area). The results indicated that TMDD is removed from the surface water by bank filtration
at both sampling locations. The removal process is probably carried out in the first meters of
the aquifer (hyporheic zone) by biodegradation processes, since TMDD does not tend to be
absorbed by sediments and it was not found in the groundwater of monitoring wells. In
groundwater samples from the Hessian Ried (n=23) TMDD was found only in five samples
and the highest TMDD concentration was 135 ng/L. According to these results, TMDD does
not represent a concern for drinking water in Germany, since it does not reach the
groundwater with high concentrations and it has a low toxicity potential.
The input of TMDD into the North Sea was estimated to be 60.7 t/a by considering the mean
transported loads of TMDD by the River Rhine at Wesel (58.3 t/a) and Meuse in the
Netherlands (2.40 t/a). The estimated discharge of TMDD by German municipal WWTPs
(8.19 t/a) and paper-recycling factories (9.24 t/a) into rivers seems to be too low considering
that the mean TMDD load in the River Rhine downstream from Wesel is 58.3 t/a. However,
due to the high density of population and industries at the Lower Rhine it is expected that
more relevant sources of TMDD are located along the Rhine River increasing the transported
load.
According to the results of this PhD project TMDD is a non-ionic surfactant contained in
products, which are applied on surfaces (printing inks and paints) and has the potential to
reach the aquatic environment. Therefore, TMDD should fulfill the requirement of a
biodegradability of 80% established by the “Law on the Environmental Impact of Detergents
and Cleaning Products” in Germany. However, due to the partial elimination rates of TMDD
obtained in municipal WWTPs (between 33% and 68%) and to the absence of information
about the execution of the biodegradation test on TMDD, it is unknown if TMDD is in
accordance with this law. Otherwise, its use as surfactant in such products is questionable.
Cenozoic lignite deposits are widespread across Europe, Asia, America, Australia, and Indonesia. These deposits were the subject of numerous studies on changes in regional/global paleoclimates, paleobotany, paleoenvironment, and basin evolutions, which led to the formation of these lignites. In some of these Cenozoic lignite deposit basins, a succession of pale and dark lignite layers has been described in the Miocene Lower Rhine Basin in Germany, the Oligo-Miocene Gippsland Basin in southeastern Australia, and several Mio-Pliocene basins in southwestern China. Furthermore, pale and dark lithotypes in lignite seams also have been found in some Pliocene lignite deposit basins from Slovenia, Serbia, and Poland. The widespread cyclic occurrence of pale and dark layers in lignite basins might represent alternating depositional conditions related to the changes in plant communities, the regional/global climate, the tectonic setting, the Asian monsoon, and orbital periodicity during peat formation. ...