Biologische Hochschulschriften (Goethe-Universität)
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The transporter associated with antigen processing-like (TAPL) acts as a lysosomal ATP-dependent polypeptide transporter with broad length selectivity. To characterize in detail its substrate specificity, a procedure for solubilization, purification and functional reconstitution of human TAPL was developed. TAPL was expressed in Sf9 insect cells with the baculovirus expression system and solubilized from crude membranes. By intensive screening of detergents, the mild non-ionic detergents digitonin and dodecylmaltoside were found to be ideal for solubilization with respect to efficiency, long term stability, and functionality of TAPL. TAPL was isolated in a two-step procedure with a yield of 500 micro g/L cell culture and, subsequently, reconstituted into proteoliposomes. The KM(pep) for the peptide RRYCfKSTEL (f refers to fluorescence label) and KM(ATP) were determined to be 10.5 ± 2.3 micro M and 97.6 ± 27.5 micro M, respectively, which are in the same range as the Michaelis-Menten constants determined in the membranes. The peptide transport activity of the reconstituted TAPL strongly depends on the lipid composition. Interestingly, the E. coli lipids are prefered over other tested natural lipids extracts. Moreover, phosphatidylcholine, the most abundant phospholipid in eukaryotic cells influenced TAPL activity in a dose dependent manner. In addition, some negatively charged lipids like DOPA and DOPS increased peptide transport activity with preference for DOPS. However, DOPE or egg PG which are also negatively charged had no effect. It seems not only the charge but also the specific head group of phospholipids that has impact on the function of TAPL. With the help of combinatorial peptide libraries containing D-amino acid residues at defined positions as well as bulky fluorescein labeled peptides, the key positions of the peptides were localized to the N- and C-terminal residues with respect to peptide transport. The C-terminal position has the strongest selectivity since modification at this position shows strongest impact on peptide transport. Additionally, positions 2 and 3 of the peptide also have weak influence on peptide selectivity. Subsequently, the residue preferences at the key positions were systematically investigated by combinatorial peptide libraries with defined residues at certain positions. At both ends, TAPL favors positively charged, aromatic, or hydrophobic residues and disfavors negatively charged residues as well as asparagine and methionine. The residue preferences at the key positions are valid for peptide substrates with different length, indicating a general rule for TAPL selectivity. Besides specific interactions of both terminal residues, electrostatic interactions are important, since peptides with positive net charge are more efficiently transported than negatively charged ones. By size exclusion chromatography (SEC) and blue native PAGE, TAPL purified in the presence of digitonin or dodecylmaltoside had an apparent molecular weight of 200 kDa which is close to the theoretical molecular mass of the TAPL homodimer (172 kDa). The purified and reconstituted TAPL showed specific ATP hydrolysis activity which can be inhibited by orthovanadate. TAPL in proteoliposomes showed 6-fold higher ATP hydrolysis than digitonin solubilized protein, indicating the phospholipids impact on TAPL function. However, no peptide substrate stimulated ATPase activity was observed. For site-specific labeling of TAPL, eight cysteines in each half transporter were replaced by alanine or valine. The TAPL cys-less mutant showed the same peptide transport activity as TAPL wt. Based on the functional TAPL cys-less mutant, seven single cysteine mutants were introduced into strategic positions. All single cysteine mutants in the TMD did not influence peptide transport, whereas the mutant L701C, which is close to the conserved H-loop motif, displayed impaired transport. TAPL orthologs Haf-4 and Haf-9 from Caenorhabditis elegans possess around 40% sequence identities with TAPL and 50% with each other. Both proteins are putative half transporters and reported to be involved in the intestinal granule formation (Bauer, 2006; Kawai et al., 2009). To further understand the physiological functions of these two proteins, they were expressed in Sf9 insect cells. Haf-4 and Haf-9 showed weak but specific ATP- and peptide-dependent peptide transport activity for the given peptide RRYCfKSTEL. Therefore, it was proposed that the physiological roles for Haf-4 and Haf-9 might be related to their peptide transport activity. Besides forming functional homodimeric complex as estimated by the peptide transport activities, both half transporter could also form heteromers which was confirmed by coimmunoprecipitation. However, the heteromers showed decreased transport activity.
1. Fab co-complexes of proton pumping NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase (complex I) Fab fragments suitable for co-crystallization with complex I were generated using an immobilized papainbased protocol. The binding of the antibody fragments to complex I was verified using Surface Plasmon Resonance and size exclusion chromatography. The binding constants of the antibodies and their respective Fab fragments were found to be in the nanomolar range. This work presents the first report on successful crystallization of complex I (proton pumping NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase) from Yarrowia lipolytica with proteolytic Fab fragments. The quality of the crystals was significantly improved when compared to the initial experiments and the best crystals diffracted X-rays to a resolution of ~7 Å. The activity of complex I remained uninfluenced by antibody fragment binding. The initial diffraction data suggest that the complex I/Fab co-complex crystals represent a space group different to the one observed for the native protein. Ongoing experiments are aimed at further enhancements of the diffraction quality of the crystals. Providing a different space group the CI/Fab co-complexes may become a very useful approach for structure determination of the enzyme. Moreover, the bound Fab offers an additional possibility to generate phase information. The antibody-mediated crystallization represents a valuable tool in structural characterization of the NADH:oxidoreductase subcomplexes or even single subunits. 2. UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase from Yarrowia lipolytica displays affinity towards Ni2+ NTA and was first detected in a contaminated sample of complex I. Following, separation from complex I, Ugp1p was purified using anion exchange chromatography. Sequence similarity studies revealed high identity to other known pyrophosphorylases. As indicated by laser-based mass spectrometry method (LILBID) Ugp1p from Y. lipolytica builds octamers similarly to the enzyme from Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The initial crystals grew as thin needles favorably in sitting drop setups. The size of the crystals was increased by employment of a micro batch technique. The improved crystals diffracted X-rays to a resolution of 3.2 Å at the synchrotron beamline. Structural characterization is under way using a molecular replacement approach based on the published structure of baker’s yeast UGPase.
Die Haarzellen des Innenohrs setzen durch Schallreize ausgelöste Schwingungen der Basilarmembran in elektrische Impulse um, die über Nerven an das Gehirn geleitet werden und dort nach komplexer neuronaler Verarbeitung die Hörwahrnehmung auslösen. Gleichzeitig erhalten die äußeren Haarzellen über absteigende Nervenverbindungen, die olivo-cochleären Neurone, auch Informationen vom Gehirn, durch die ihre Empfindlichkeit verändert werden kann. Über die Mechanismen dieser efferenten Beeinflussung der Reizverarbeitung im Innenohr ist noch wenig bekannt und auch ihre biologische Funktion ist noch nicht geklärt. Diskutiert wird eine Rolle bei der Verbesserung des Signal-Hintergrundrausch-Verhältnisses und im Zusammenhang mit selektiver Aufmerksamkeit, durch die relevante Anteile der akustischen Umwelt gezielt „herausgehört“ werden können. Ziel dieser Promotionsarbeit ist die Untersuchung der efferenten Beeinflussung der Vorgänge im Innenohr mithilfe der nicht-invasiven Messung von akustischen Beiprodukten der aktiven Reizverstärkung durch die äußeren Haarzellen, den otoakustischen Emissionen. Bei dieser Methode werden mit einem empfindlichen Mikrophon im Gehörgang Schallereignisse aufgenommen, die das Ohr selbst produziert. Die olivo-cochleären Efferenzen können experimentell durch Applikation von Rausch-Stimuli auf dem kontralateralen Ohr aktiviert werden und ihre Wirkung auf die Empfindlichkeit des Innenohrs anhand der Veränderungen der otoakustischen Emissionen auf dem anderen, ipsilateralen Ohr gemessen werden. In Messungen unterschiedlicher Typen von otoakustischen Emissionen am Menschen und an der Mongolischen Wüstenrennmaus konnten deutliche Veränderungen der otoakustischen Emissionen bei gleichzeitiger Beschallung des kontralateralen Ohrs gezeigt werden, die als Modulation der Haarzelleigenschaften und Beeinflussung der cochleären Verstärkung durch Aktivierung der absteigenden Nervenbahnen interpretiert werden können: Spontane otoakustische Emissionen (SOAE), die ohne jegliche akustische Stimulation vom Innenohr generiert werden, zeigten bei kontralateraler akustischer Stimulation eine Verminderung ihres Pegels und eine Erhöhung ihrer Frequenz. Die Pegelverminderung deutet auf eine Dämpfung der cochleären Verstärkungsmechanismen und die Frequenzerhöhung auf eine Erhöhung der Steifigkeit im Corti-Organ und hierdurch veränderte Resonanzeigenschaften nach Aktivierung der efferenten Neurone hin. Distorsionsprodukt-otoakustische Emissionen (DPOAE), die bei Stimulation mit zwei Reintönen (f1 und f2) in Folge der nichtlinearen Verstärkung durch die äußeren Haarzellen entstehen, waren durch kontralaterale akustische Stimulation ebenfalls klar in ihrem Pegel beeinflusst. Die Effekte, sowohl auf SOAE als auch auf DPOAE, waren abhängig vom Pegel des kontralateralen Stimulus und traten bereits bei niedrigen kontralateralen Stimuluspegeln, deutlich unter der Schwelle des Mittelohrreflexes, auf. Durch ihren Zeitverlauf konnten die Effekte den in der Literatur beschriebenen efferenten Vorgängen zugeschrieben werden. Bei anhaltender akustischer Stimulation traten Adaptationsphänomene auf. Weiterhin zeigte sich in Experimenten mit kontralateralem Schmalbandrauschen und Reintönen, dass die efferente Modulation selektiv auf bestimmte Bereiche des tonotop organisierten Innenohrs zielt, also frequenzspezifisch agiert, wobei Reintöne mit Frequenzen, die etwas tiefer als die Stimulationsfrequenz lagen, die größten Effekte erzielten. Dies steht in guter Übereinstimmung zu anatomischen Daten. Besonders interessant an den DPOAE-Messungen war, dass das quadratische Distorsionsprodukt der Frequenz f2-f1 wesentlich empfindlicher reagierte als das kubische Distorsionsprodukt der Frequenz 2f1-f2. Bisher gibt es kaum Daten zu Veränderungen der f2-f1-DPOAE durch efferente Mechanismen. Die beiden DPOAE-Typen sind durch unterschiedliche Parameter der dem Verstärkungsprozess zu Grunde liegenden Transferfunktion beeinflusst, und die experimentell nachgewiesenen Unterschiede deuten darauf hin, dass die Aktivierung der olivo-cochleären Efferenzen ihre dämpfende Wirkung auf die Schallverarbeitung im Innenohr durch eine Verschiebung des Arbeitspunktes der Transfercharakteristik des cochleären Verstärkers entfaltet. Diese Hypothese wurde an der Wüstenrennmaus durch einen ergänzenden methodischen Ansatz unterstützt, bei dem zusätzlich zur Evozierung und Messung von DPOAE mit und ohne gleichzeitiger kontralateraler Aktivierung der Efferenzen ein sehr tieffrequenter „Bias“-Ton mit hohem Pegel appliziert wurde, der das Corti-Organ und damit den Arbeitspunkt des cochleären Verstärkers periodisch auslenkte. Diese Tieftonstimulation hatte eine sehr starke, von der Phase des Bias-Tons abhängige Modulation des f2-f1-Pegels zur Folge, während 2f1-f2 kaum beeinflusst wurde. Das Muster der f2-f1-Pegelmodulation änderte bei zusätzlicher kontralateraler Schallapplikation deutlich seinen Charakter. Entsprechende Veränderungen in den Verzerrungsmustern konnten mithilfe eines einfachen Modells zur DPOAE-Generation, das auf der Beschreibung des Verstärkungsmechanismus durch eine Boltzman-Funktion basierte, simuliert werden. Die Befunde der vorliegenden Arbeit zeigen, dass die Schallverstärkung im Innenohr durch efferente Mechanismen moduliert wird und dies anhand der nicht-invasiven Messung von otoakustischen Emissionen nachweisbar ist. Dabei deuten die Ergebnisse auf eine Verschiebung des Arbeitspunktes der Transfercharakteristik des cochleären Verstärkers als Mechanismus der olivo-cochleären Modulation der Reizverarbeitung im Innenohr hin.
Kenntnisse über die dreidimensionale Struktur therapeutisch relevanter Zielproteine bieten wertvolle Informationen für den rationalen Wirkstoffentwurf. Die stetig wachsende Zahl aufgeklärter Kristallstrukturen von Proteinen ermöglicht eine qualitative und quantitative rechnergestützte Untersuchung von spezifischen Protein-Liganden Wechselwirkungen. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurden neue Algorithmen für die Identifikation und den Ähnlichkeitsvergleich von Proteinbindetaschen und ihren Eigenschaften entwickelt und in dem Programm PocketomePicker zusammengefasst. Die Software gliedert sich in die Routinen PocketPicker, PocketShapelets und PocketGraph. Ferner wurde in dieser Arbeit die Methode ReverseLIQUID reimplementiert und im Rahmen einer Kooperation für das strukturbasierte Virtuelle Screening angewendet. Die genannten Methoden und ihre wissenschaftliche Anwendungen sollte hier zusammengefasst werden: Die Methode PocketPicker ermöglicht die Vorhersage potentieller Bindetaschen auf Proteinoberflächen. Diese Technik implementiert einen geometrischen Ansatz auf Basis „künstlicher Gitter“ zur Identifikation zusammenhängender vergrabener Bereiche der Proteinoberfläche als Orte möglicher Ligandenbindestellen. Die Methode erreicht eine korrekte Vorhersage der tatsächlichen Bindetasche für 73 % der Einträge eines repräsentativen Datensatzes von Proteinstrukturen. Für 90 % der Proteinstrukturen wird die tatsächlich Ligandenbindestelle unter den drei wahrscheinlichsten vorhergesagten Taschen gefunden. PocketPicker übertrifft die Vorhersagequalität anderer etablierter Algorithmen und ermöglicht Taschenidentifikationen auf apo-Strukturen ohne signifikante Einbußen des Vorhersageerfolges. Andere Verfahren weisen deutlich eingeschränkte Ergebnisse bei der Anwendung auf apo-Strukturen auf. PocketPicker erlaubt den alignmentfreien Ähnlichkeitsvergleich von Bindetaschenfor-men durch die Kodierung berechneter Bindevolumen als Korrelationsdeskriptoren. Dieser Ansatz wurde erfolgreich für Funktionsvorhersage von Bindetaschen aus Homologiemodellen von APOBEC3C und Glutamat Dehydrogenase des Malariaerregers Plasmodium falciparum angewendet. Diese beiden Projekte wurden in Zusammenarbeit mit Kollaborationspartnern durchgeführt. Zudem wurden PocketPicker Korrelationsdeskriptoren erfolgreich für die automatisierte Konformationsanalyse der enzymatischen Tasche von Aldose Reduktase angewendet. Für detaillierte Analysen der Form und der physikochemischen Eigenschaften von Proteinbindetaschen wurde in dieser Arbeit die Methode PocketShapelets entwickelt. Diese Technik ermöglicht strukturelle Alignments von extrahierten Bindevolumen durch Zerlegungen der Oberfläche von Proteinbindetaschen. Die Überlagerung gelingt durch die Identifikation strukturell ähnlicher Oberflächenkurvaturen zweier Taschen. PocketShapelets wurde erfolgreich zur Analyse funktioneller Ähnlichkeit von Bindetaschen verwendet, die auf Betrachtungen physikochemischer Eigenschaften basiert. Zur Analyse der topologischen Vielfalt von Bindetaschengeometrien wurde in dieser Arbeit die Methode PocketGraph entwickelt. Dieser Ansatz nutzt das Konzept des sog. „Wachsenden Neuronalen Gases“ aus dem Bereich des maschinellen Lernens für eine automatische Extraktion des strukturellen Aufbaus von Bindetaschen. Ferner ermöglicht diese Methode die Zerlegung einer Bindestelle in ihre Subtaschen. Die von PocketPicker charakterisierten Taschenvolumen bilden die Grundlage für die Methode ReverseLIQUID. Dieses Programm wurde in dieser Arbeit weiterentwickelt und im Rahmen einer Kooperation zur Identifikation eines Inhibitors der Serinprotease HtrA des Erregers Helicobacter pylori verwendet. Mit ReverseLIQUID konnte ein strukturbasiertes Pharmakophormodell für das Virtuelle Screening erstellt werden. Dieser Ansatz ermöglichte die Identifikation einer Substanz mit niedrig mikromolarer Affinität gegenüber der Zielstruktur.
The transcription factor p63 is part of the p53 protein family, which consists of three members, p53, p63 and p73. P63 shares structural similarity with all family members, but is associated to different biological functions than p53 or p73. While p53 is mainly linked to tumor suppression and p73 is connected with neuronal development, p63 has been connected to critical biological roles within ectodermal development and skin stem cell biology as well as supervision of the genetic stability of oocytes. Due to its gene structure p63 is expressed as at least six different isoforms, three of them containing a N-terminal transactivation domain. The isoforms that are of biological relevance both have a C-terminal inhibitory domain that negatively regulates the transcriptional activity. This inhibitory domain is supposed to contain two individual components of which one is internally binding and masking the transactivation domain while the other one can be sumoylated. To further investigate this domain a mutational analysis with the help of transactivation assays in SAOS2 cells was carried out to identify the critical amino acids within the inhibitory domain and the impact on transcriptional activity of TAp63alpha, the p63-isoform which is essential for the integrity of the female germline. The results of these experiments show that a stretch of approximately 13 amino acids seems to be important for the regulation of transcriptional activity in TAp63alpha, due to the increased transcriptional activity occurring in this region after mutation. Additional experiments showed that this mechanism is distinct from sumoylation, which seems to have only implications for the intracellular level of TAp63alpha. As a conclusion, the C-terminus of the Tap63alpha is essential for two different mechanisms, which control the transcriptional activity of the protein. Both regulatory elements are independent from each other and can now be restricted to certain amino acids. Activation of the wild type protein might take place in the identified region via post-translational modification. Furthermore an inhibition assay was carried out to test if the same region might have implications on the second biological relevant isoform deltaNp63alpha. The results show that the same amino acids which show an impact on transcriptional activity in Tap63alpha lead to a significant change in functional behaviour of deltaNp63alpha. There is a possibility that both proteins are regulated with opposite effects via the same mechanisms, based at the C-terminus of the p63alpha-isoforms. In both cases a modification of these residues could lead to a more opened conformation of the protein with consequences on promoter binding, which can be even important for deltaNp63alpha with respect to promoter squelching. Both alpha-isoforms seem to be regulated via the C-terminus and to elucidate if that is also the case for TAp63gamma a deletion analysis was carried out. The results show that there are also amino acids within the C-terminus of TAp63gamma, which have implications on the transcriptional activity of the protein. Therefore the C-terminus seems to play a major role for regulation of diverse p63 isoforms.
Streptomyces coelicolor ist der Modellorganismus der GC reichen, Gram+ Actinomyceten, die mehr als zwei Drittel aller bekannten Antibiotika produzieren. Phänotypisch zeichnet er sich durch die Bildung eines Substrat- und eines Luftmyzels aus, welches im Laufe der weiteren Differenzierung Sporen bildet. Streptomyceten produzieren neben Antibiotika noch eine Vielzahl biotechnologisch interessanter Metaboliten. Der komplexe Lebenszyklus und Stoffwechsel erfordern eine genaue Regulation der Genexpression. Die letzten Jahre haben gezeigt, dass neben Proteinen auch die RNA eine regulatorische Funktion hat. Verschiedene regulatorisch aktive RNA Elemente wie Riboswitche, RNA-Thermometer und kleine nicht kodierende RNAs (small noncoding RNAs – sRNAs) wurden identifiziert. sRNAs wirken meist als antisense Riboregulatoren, indem sie ihre Ziel-mRNA binden und dadurch die Translation hemmen oder fördern. In dieser Arbeit wurden verschiedene bioinformatische Methoden verwendet, um sRNAs im Genom von S. coelicolor vorherzusagen. Es wurden Terminatorstrukturen und konservierte Sekundärstrukturen in den intergenen Regionen vorhergesagt, die keinem Gen zuzuordnen waren. In einem weiteren Ansatz wurden Bindestellen des Regulatorproteins DasR vorhergesagt, um DasR kontrollierte sRNAs zu identifizieren. Zusätzlich wurde mittels 454 Sequenzierung erstmalig das Transkriptom von S. coeliocolor analysiert. Auf diese Weise konnten etwa 500 sRNAs vorhergesagt werden. Eine der beiden charakterisierten sRNAs, sc32, ist 139 nt lang. Ihr Promoter liegt im kodierenden Bereich des Gens bldC und sie wird spezifisch durch Kälteschock induziert. Die zweite charakterisierte sRNA, sc1, ist 159 nt lang und in allen sequenzierten Streptomyceten konserviert. Ihre Expression wird nur bei Stickstoffmangel in der Stationärphase reprimiert. Durch molekularbiologische Analysen konnte ein Zielgen von sc1 identifiziert werden, die extrazelluläre Agarase DagA. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass sc1 an die dagA-mRNA bindet und dadurch die Translation inhibiert. Als zweites mögliches Ziel von sc1 konnte die Histidinkinase SCO5239 identifiziert werden. Hier wurde gezeigt, dass Koexpression von sc1 die Expression einer SCO5239 Reportergenfusion um den Faktor acht steigert. Durch Analyse des Proteoms von sc1 Mutanten, konnte die differenzierte Expression von elf weiteren Proteinen gezeigt werden. Sc1 scheint als Regulator zu agieren, indem es auf die Stickstoffversorgung der Zelle reagiert und den Sekundärmetabolismus deaktiviert.
Photosystem (PS) I is a huge membrane protein complex which coordinates around 200 co-factors. Upon light excitation a charge separation at the PS I reaction centre is induced which leads to an electron transport across the thylakoid membrane and the generation of redox equivalents needed for several biochemical reactions, e.g. the synthesis of sugars. For higher plants and cyanobacteria the crystal structure of PS I complexes were resolved to resolutions of 4.4 Å and 2.5 Å. Furthermore, supramolecular structures of PS I of eukaryotic algae, mainly of the green line, were obtained recently. However, up to now, no structure of diatoms is available yet. Diatoms are key players in global primary production and derived from a secondary endosymbiosis event. Their chloroplasts are surrounded by four envelope membranes and their thylakoids are evenly arranged in bands of three, i.e. no separation in grana and stroma regions is apparent. In this thesis a protocol was developed to isolate a functional PS I complex of diatoms which can be used for structural analysis by transmissional electron microscopy (TEM). A photosystem I-fucoxanthin chlorophyll protein (PS I-FCP) complex was isolated from the pennate diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum by ion exchange chromatography. Spectroscopic analysis proved that bound Fcp polypeptides function as a light-harvesting complex. An active light energy transfer from Fcp associated pigments, Chl c and fucoxanthin, towards the PS I core was proven by fluorescence spectroscopy. Oxidised minus reduced difference spectroscopy evidenced the activity of the PS I reaction centre P700 and yielded a chlorophyll a/P700 ratio of approximately 200:1. These data indicate that the isolated PS I-FCP complex exceeds the PS I cores from cyanobacteria and higher plants in the numbers of chlorophyll a molecules. Because of the strict conservation of PS I cores among organisms the additional 100 chlorophyll a molecules must either be coordinated by Fcps or function as linker molecules between the Fcp antenna and the PS I core as shown for the PS I-LHC I complex of higher plants. To tell something about the structural organisation, the PS I-FCP complex was compared with its cyanobacterial and higher plant counterparts. Whereas cyanobacterial PS I cores aggregate to trimers, usually without associated antennae, higher plant PS I is a monomer and binds additionally two LHC I heterodimers. BN-PAGE and gel filtration experiments showed that also diatoms contain PS I monomers associated with Fcps as light-harvesting antenna. First TEM studies evidenced these observations. Negatively stained PS I-FCP particles had an increased size compared to PS I cores of other organisms. No PS I trimers or higher oligomers have been found. The calculated diameter and shape of the particles correspond to PS I-LHC I particles obtained from green algae, which also comprise of a higher number of LHC I polypeptides compared to the higher plant x-ray structure. Additionally, the analysis of polypeptides indicates that the PS I associated Fcps differ from the free Fcp pool and also from Fcps of a PS II enriched fraction. The assumption that diatoms harbour just one Fcp antenna that serve both Photosystems equally seems to be wrong. To further study the association of Fcps with the two Photosystems, both complexes plus the free FCP complexes were isolated from the centric diatom Cyclotella meneghiniana. Because of the availability of antibodies directed against specific Fcp polypeptides of Cyclotella the PS I-FCP complex of Phaeodactylum could not be used. A trimeric FCP complex, FCPa, and a higher FCP oligomer, FCPb, have already been described for C. meneghiniana. The latter is assumed to be composed of only Fcp5, whereas the FCPa contains Fcp2 and Fcp6. Biochemical and spectroscopical evidences revealed a different subset of associated Fcp polypeptides within the isolated photosystem complexes. Whereas the PS II associated Fcp antenna resembles FCPa, at least three different Fcp polypeptides are associated with PS I. By re-solubilisation of the PS I complex and a further purification step Fcp polypeptides were partially removed from PS I and both fractions were analysed again by biochemical and spectroscopical means, as well as by HPLC. Thereby Fcp4 and a so far undescribed 17 kDa Fcp were found to be strongly coupled to PS I, whereas another Fcp, presumably Fcp5, is only loosely bound to the PS I core. Thus an association of FCPb and PS I is assumed.
The NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase (complex I) is a large membrane bound protein complex coupling the redox reaction of NADH oxidation and quinone reduction to vectorial proton translocation across bioenergetic membranes. The mechanism of proton pumping is still unknown; it seems however that the reduction of quinone induces conformational changes which drive proton uptake from one side and release at the other side of the membrane. In this study the proposed quinone and inhibitor binding pocket located at the interface of the 49-kDa and PSST subunits was explored by a large number of point mutations introduced into complex I from the strictly aerobic yeast Yarrowia lipolytica. Point mutations were systematically chosen based on the crystal structure of the hydrophilic domain of complex I from Thermus thermophilus. In total, the properties of 94 mutants at 39 positions which completely cover the lining of the large putative quinone and inhibitor binding cavity are described and discussed here. A structure/function analysis allowed the identification of functional domains within the large putative quinone binding cavity. A possible quinone access path ranging from the N-terminal beta-sheet of the 49-kDa subunit into the pocket to tyrosine 144 could be defined, since all exchanges introduced here, caused an almost complete loss of complex I activity. A region located deeper in the proposed quinone binding pocket is apparently not important for complex I activity. In contrast, all exchanges of tyrosine 144, even the very conservative mutant Y144F, essentially abolished dNADH:DBQ oxidoreductase activity of complex I. However, with higher concentrations of Q1 or Q2 the dNADH:Q oxidoreductase activity was largely restored in the mutants with the more conservative exchanges. Proton pumping experiments showed that this activity was also coupled to proton translocation, indicating that these quinones were reduced at the physiological site. However, the apparent Km values for Q1 or Q2 were drastically increased, clearly demonstrating that tyrosine 144 is central for quinone binding and reduction. These results further prove that the enzymatically relevant quinone binding site of complex I is located at the interface of the 49-kDa and PSST subunits. The quinone binding pocket is thought to comprise the binding sites for a plethora of specific complex I inhibitors that are usually grouped into three classes. The large array of mutants targeting the quinone binding cavity was examined with a representative of each inhibitor class. Many mutants conferring resistance were identified which, depending on the inhibitor tested, clustered in well defined and partially overlapping regions of the large putative quinone and inhibitor binding cavity. Mutants with effects on type A (DQA) and type B (rotenone) inhibitors were found in a subdomain corresponding to the former [NiFe] site in homologous hydrogenases, whereby the type A inhibitor DQA seems to bind deeper in this domain. Mutants with effects on the type C inhibitor (C12E8) were found in a narrow crevice. Exchanging more exposed residues at the border of these well defined domains affected all three inhibitor types. Therefore, the results as a whole provide further support for the concept that different inhibitor classes bind to different but partially overlapping binding sites within a single large quinone binding pocket. In addition, they also indicate the approximate location of the binding sites within the structure of the large quinone and inhibitor binding cavity at the interface of the 49 kDa and the PSST subunit. It has been proposed earlier that the highly conserved HRGXE-motif in the 49-kDa subunit forms a part of the quinone binding site of complex I. Mutagenesis of the HRGXE-motif, revealed that these residues are rather critical for complex I assembly and seem to have an important structural role. The question why iron-sulfur cluster N1a is not detectable by EPR in many models organisms is not solved yet. Introducing polar and positively charged amino acid residues close to this cluster in order to increase its midpoint potential did not result in the appearance of the cluster N1a EPR signal in mitochondrial membranes from the mutants. Clearly, further research will be necessary to gain insights to the function of this iron-sulfur cluster in complex I. In an additional project, a new and simple in vivo screen for complex I deficiency in Y. lipolytica was developed and optimized. This assay probes for defects in complex I assembly and stability, oxidoreductase activity and also proton pumping activity by complex I. Most importantly, this assay is applicable to all Y. lipolytica strains and could be used to identify loss-of-function mutants, gain-of-functions mutants (i.e. resistance towards complex I inhibitors) and revertants due to mutations in both nuclear and mitochondrially encoded genes of complex I subunits.
Central America is one of the world’s most herpetological diverse areas in relation to its size. Nicaragua is the largest country in this region and separates Nuclear from Lower Central America. It is one of the least herpetological explored countries in Central America and few studies dealing with the herpetofauna of a potion or the entire country have been published. I here update the checklist of the Nicaraguan herpetofauna, present taxonomic revisions of some difficult species complexes, compare the similarities of the composition of the herpetofaunal communities in the major forest formations present in the country within a zoogeographical context, and identify those species with a greater vulnerability risk in Nicaragua. Taxonomy The herpetofauna of Nicaragua currently consists of 244 species representing 134 genera and 42 families with 78 amphibian species representing 35 genera and 15 families, and 166 reptile species representing 99 genera and 27 families, which includes six marine species. Sixteen species (12 amphibians and four reptiles) are endemic to the country. Of the 12 endemic amphibian species, three are here described. In addition, five genera (Anotheca, Cerrophidion, Duellmanohyla, Isthmohyla, and Rhinobothryum) and two species (Rhadinea godmani and Urotheca decipiens) are known to occur both north and south of Nicaragua although there are no voucher specimens of these taxa to confirm their presence in country. I complete a bibliographic research updating the nomenclature changes and provide a brief herpetological history of Nicaragua, a recompilation of all species described upon Nicaraguan material and their current synonymy, the first time each species was recorded from the country, and a list of all recognized subspecies occurring in Nicaragua. I discuss the taxonomic uncertainties among the Nicaraguan populations of amphibians and reptiles and take further detailed taxonomic revisions on selected Nicaraguan species groups from the genera Anolis, Bolitoglossa, and Craugastor along their known distributional range. I describe five new species of herpetofauna (three of which are based on Nicaraguan material), redescribe five species of Anolis (three of which occur in Nicaragua), and provide voucher specimens of five other species for the first time in Nicaragua. In detail: • I studied the pholidosis, morphometrics as well as hemipenis and dewlap morphology in Anolis wermuthi, an anole endemic to the highlands of northern Nicaragua. I examine patterns of geographic variation using discriminant function analysis and discuss the characters that vary both individually and among populations. The results indicate that A. wermuthi is a single species with several disjunct, slightly divergent populations. I provide a standardized description, illustrations of the everted hemipenis of an adult topotype, the male and female dewlap, and a distribution map. I also provide brief descriptions of the localities where this species occurs and some ecological notes. • I studied the pholidosis, morphometrics as well as hemipenis morphology in the Central American anole species Anolis humilis, A. quaggulus, and A. uniformis. The three taxa are distinct in hemipenis morphology. However, very little differentiation in pholidotic and morphometric characters is documented. I document interspecific variation in several characters but with overlap of the documented ranges. A discriminant function analysis based on five pholidotic characters yielded a scatter diagram that showed large overlap between the clusters of the three taxa. I provide head scalation illustrations, an identification key, a distribution map, and standardized descriptions of the commonly distributed in Nicaragua A. quaggulus as well as of the other two species. • I describe two new species of anoles (genus Anolis) from Panama formerly referred to as Anolis limifrons. The two new species, Anolis apletophallus and Anolis cryptolimifrons, differ from A. limifrons by having a large bilobed hemipenis (small and unilobed in A. limifrons). The new species differ from each other in male dewlap size and coloration. I provide illustrations of the head scalation, everted hemipenis, and dewlap, an identification key, a distribution map, and standardized descriptions of the commonly distributed in Nicaragua A. limifrons and the two new species described herein. • I describe two new species of salamanders of Bolitoglossa from southern Nicaragua. Bolitoglossa indio is known from Río Indio in the lowlands of the Río San Juan area and Bolitoglossa insularis from the premontane slopes of Volcán Maderas on Ometepe Island. The two new species are of unknown affinities but both differ from their congeners in coloration. Bolitoglossa indio is most similar to B. mexicana and B. odonnelli from which differ by having both broad dorsolateral pale brown stripes not clearly delimited in outline. Bolitoglossa insularis is most similar to B. mombachoensis and B. striatula from which differ by the absence of dark or light defined stripes on dorsum and venter. • I describe a new species of frog of the genus Craugastor from Río San Juan, Nicaragua. The new species, Craugastor chingopetaca, is assigned to the fitzingeri group and differs from most Central American species of that group by the absence of a midgular pale stripe. Within the fitzingeri group it is most similar to C. crassidigitus and C. talamancae from which it differs in several morphological characteristics such as more extensive webbing, retuse disk covers on some digits, and relative toe length. • I provide voucher specimens of Cochranella spinosa, Kinosternon angustipons, Mesaspis moreletii, Cnemidophorus lemniscatus and Adelphicos quadrivirgatum for the first time in Nicaragua. I include descriptions, illustrations, and brief ecological notes for the five new country records. Zoogeography Based on the concept of ecological formations proposed by HOLDRIDGE (1967), nine forest formations are found in Nicaragua. Of the total number of terrestrial species of herpetofauna found in Nicaragua, 131 species (55.0%) occur in Lowland Wet Forest, 21 of which (8.8%) are restricted to this forest formation, 168 species (70.6%) occur in Lowland Moist Forest, 15 of which (6.3%) are restricted to this forest formation, 84 species (35.3%) occur in Lowland Dry Forest, four of which (1.7%) are restricted to this forest formation, 47 species (19.7%) occur in Lowland Arid Forest, with no species restricted to this forest formation, 59 species (24.8%) occur in Premontane Wet Forest, three of which (1.3%) are restricted to this forest formation, 116 species (48.7%) occur in Premontane Moist Forest, 10 of which (4.2%) are restricted to this forest formation, 51 (21.4%) species occur in Premontane Dry Forest, with no species restricted to this forest formation, 13 species (5.5%) occur in Lower Montane Wet Forest, two of which (0.8%) are restricted to this forest formation, and 50 species (21.0%) occur Lower Montane Moist Forest, seven of which (2.9%) are restricted to this forest formation. The Coefficient of Biogeographic Resemblance algorithm show a distinct composition of the herpetofauna from the isolated highlands of northeastern Nicaragua, which is characterized by a high proportion of endemic species. Two other clusters are evident when analyzing the herpetofaunal similarities among Nicaragua, the Pacific versant and the central mountains and the Atlantic lowlands. In addition, the Pacific lowlands are characterized by a relatively homogeneous composition of the herpetofauna. In contrast, many species have their northern limit of distribution in the Atlantic lowlands with the ranges of most of these species ending in southern Nicaragua. The central mountains constitute the southern limit of distribution of several highland species. In general, there is a greater contribution of reptile than amphibian species to the total herpetofauna present in each forest formation. This unbalance is slightly higher in the dry than in the moist parts of the country. The similarities in the composition of the reptiles between the different forests formations seem to be relatively distinct on an elevation factor, whereas in amphibians similarities might be better explained in correlation with humidity. The total amount of amphibian and reptile species in Nicaragua has a Middle American Element dominance and varies between amphibians and reptiles, with and a greater South American Element influence in anurans and a greater Old Northern Element influence in reptiles. In general, there is a greater percentage of species with a South American Element in extreme southeastern Nicaragua with a decreasing tendency towards northern Nicaragua. Taking in account the geography and geologic history of Nicaragua as well as the known Central American dispersal routes, I identify species of probable occurrence in Nicaragua as well as those places with a greater potential to hold undescribed endemic species. Conservation In Nicaragua, no amphibian or reptile populations are entirely free from anthropogenic impact. I determine the endangerment level of all Nicaraguan amphibian and reptile species using the IUCN categorizations and the Environmental Vulnerability Scores. Seventy-six species (31.9%) of Nicaraguan amphibians and terrestrial reptiles have high vulnerability, 118 (49.6%) medium vulnerability, and 44 (18.5%) low vulnerability. Eighteen species (7.4% of the total herpetofauna) are unknown from protected areas, including 13 high vulnerability species (three are endemic), four medium vulnerability species, and one low vulnerability species. To preserve the future of Nicaragua’s amphibians and reptiles, every species should reside in at least one protected area, the protected areas must be guarded, and monitoring programs are needed to detect changes in amphibian and reptile populations, prioritizing highly vulnerable species.