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We investigate the utility of modern kernel-based machine learning methods for ligand-based virtual screening. In particular, we introduce a new graph kernel based on iterative graph similarity and optimal assignments, apply kernel principle component analysis to projection error-based novelty detection, and discover a new selective agonist of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma using Gaussian process regression. Virtual screening, the computational ranking of compounds with respect to a predicted property, is a cheminformatics problem relevant to the hit generation phase of drug development. Its ligand-based variant relies on the similarity principle, which states that (structurally) similar compounds tend to have similar properties. We describe the kernel-based machine learning approach to ligand-based virtual screening; in this, we stress the role of molecular representations, including the (dis)similarity measures defined on them, investigate effects in high-dimensional chemical descriptor spaces and their consequences for similarity-based approaches, review literature recommendations on retrospective virtual screening, and present an example workflow. Graph kernels are formal similarity measures that are defined directly on graphs, such as the annotated molecular structure graph, and correspond to inner products. We review graph kernels, in particular those based on random walks, subgraphs, and optimal vertex assignments. Combining the latter with an iterative graph similarity scheme, we develop the iterative similarity optimal assignment graph kernel, give an iterative algorithm for its computation, prove convergence of the algorithm and the uniqueness of the solution, and provide an upper bound on the number of iterations necessary to achieve a desired precision. In a retrospective virtual screening study, our kernel consistently improved performance over chemical descriptors as well as other optimal assignment graph kernels. Chemical data sets often lie on manifolds of lower dimensionality than the embedding chemical descriptor space. Dimensionality reduction methods try to identify these manifolds, effectively providing descriptive models of the data. For spectral methods based on kernel principle component analysis, the projection error is a quantitative measure of how well new samples are described by such models. This can be used for the identification of compounds structurally dissimilar to the training samples, leading to projection error-based novelty detection for virtual screening using only positive samples. We provide proof of principle by using principle component analysis to learn the concept of fatty acids. The peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) is a nuclear transcription factor that regulates lipid and glucose metabolism, playing a crucial role in the development of type 2 diabetes and dyslipidemia. We establish a Gaussian process regression model for PPAR gamma agonists using a combination of chemical descriptors and the iterative similarity optimal assignment kernel via multiple kernel learning. Screening of a vendor library and subsequent testing of 15 selected compounds in a cell-based transactivation assay resulted in 4 active compounds. One compound, a natural product with cyclobutane scaffold, is a full selective PPAR gamma agonist (EC50 = 10 +/- 0.2 muM, inactive on PPAR alpha and PPAR beta/delta at 10 muM). The study delivered a novel PPAR gamma agonist, de-orphanized a natural bioactive product, and, hints at the natural product origins of pharmacophore patterns in synthetic ligands.
Inhibition of midbrain dopamine (DA) neurons codes for negative reward prediction errors, and causally affects conditioning learning. DA neurons located in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) display two-fold longer rebound delays from hyperpolarizing inhibition in comparison to those in the substantia nigra (SN). This difference has been linked to the slow inactivation of Kv4.3-mediated A-type currents (IA). One known suppressor of Kv4.3 inactivation is a splice variant of potassium channel interacting protein 4 (KChIP4), KChIP4a, which has a unique potassium channel inactivation suppressor domain (KISD) that is coded within exon 3 of the KChIP4 gene. Previous ex vivo experiments from our lab showed that the constitutive knockout of KChIP4 (KChIP4 KO) removes the slow inactivation of IA in VTA DA neurons, with marginal effects on SN DA neurons. KChIP4 KO also increased firing pauses in response to phasic hyperpolarization in these neurons. Here I show, using extracellular recordings combined with juxtacellular labeling in anesthetized mice, that KChIP4 KO also selectively changes the number and duration spontaneous firing pauses by VTA DA neurons in vivo. Pauses were quantified with two different statistical methods, including one developed in house. No other firing parameter was affected, including mean frequency and bursting, and the activity of SN DA neurons was untouched, suggesting that KChIP4 gene products have a highly specific effect on VTA DA neuron responses to inhibitory input.
Following up on this result, I developed a new mouse line (KChIP4 Ex3d) where the KISD-coding exon 3 of KChIP4 is selectively excised by cre-recombinase expressed under the dopamine transporter (DAT) promoter, therefore disrupting the expression of KChIP4a only in midbrain DA neurons. I show that these mice have a highly selective behavioral phenotype, displaying a drastic acceleration in extinction learning, but no changes in acquisition learning, in comparison to control littermates. Computational fitting of the behavioral data with a modified Rescorla-Wagner model confirmed that this phenotype is congruent with a selective increase in learning from negative prediction errors. KChIP4 Ex3d also had normal open field exploration, novel object preference, hole board exploration and spontaneous alternation in a plus maze, indicating that exploratory drive, responses to novelty, anxiety, locomotion and working memory were not affected by the genetic manipulation. Furthermore semi-quantitative IHC revealed that KChIP4 Ex3d mice have increased Kv4.3 expression in TH+ neurons, suggesting that the absence of KChIP4a increases the binding of other KChIP variants, which known to increase surface expression of Kv4 channels.
Furthermore, in the course of my experimental study I identified that the most used mouse line where cre-recombinase is expressed under the DAT promoter (DAT-cre KI) has a different behavioral phenotype during conditioning in relation to WT littermate controls. These animals displayed increased responding during the initial trials of acquisition and delayed response latency extinction, consistent with an increase in motivation, which is in line with a decrease in DAT function.
I propose a working model where the disruption of KChIP4a expression in DA neurons leads to an increase in binding of other KChIP variants to Kv4.3 subunits, promoting their increased surface expression and increasing IA current density; this then increases firing pauses in response to synaptic inhibition, which in behaving animals translates to an increase in negative prediction error-based learning.
Weltweit stellen die tropischen Tieflandregenwälder die Zentren der Artenvielfalt und Biodiversität dar. Sie sind das komplexeste aller terrestrischen Ökosysteme. Zu der Frage nach den Ursachen ihrer Artenvielfalt und deren Aufrechterhaltung gibt es neben theoretischen Erklärungsansätzen bisher kaum Studien, die versuchen, die Artenvielfalt eines Taxons bedingende ökologischen Faktoren kausal zu untersuchen. Die vorliegende Arbeit hatte zum Ziel, diese Thematik mit Hilfe eines neuen Forschungsansatzes aufzugreifen. Die Artenabnahme eines Taxons und die sie potentiell verursachenden Faktoren sollten entlang eines Höhengradienten aufgenommen werden, um im Umkehrschluß Hinweise zu finden, welche Bedingungen für die Aufrechterhaltung der Artenvielfalt entscheidend sind. Ameisen boten sich aufgrund ihrer starken Artenabnahme mit zunehmender Höhe besonders als Untersuchungsobjekt an. Sie nehmen zudem eine Schlüsselrolle im Ökosystem Tieflandregenwald ein, stellen unter den Invertebraten eine der taxonomisch mit am besten bearbeiteten Gruppen dar, und selbst einzelne Individuen können aufgrund ihrer eusozialen und seßhaften Lebensweise definitiv dem Fundort bzw. der Fundhöhe zugeordnet werden. Der grundlegende Versuchsansatz bestand darin, alle Untersuchungen vergleichend in Boden- und Vegetationsstratum durchzuführen. Dementsprechend wurden entlang des Höhengradienten in beiden Straten die Artenabnahme der Ameisen sowie abiotische und biotische Parameter aufgenommen. Weiterhin wurde eine Art (Diacamma sp.) exemplarisch herausgegriffen, um eventuelle Veränderungen ihrer Ökologie zu erfassen. Die Abnahme der Artenvielfalt von Ameisen am Boden und in der niederen Vegetation verläuft unterschiedlich. Dieser Unterschied ist jedoch nicht auf grundlegend unterschiedliche Faktoren zurückzuführen, sondern auf deren unterschiedliche Ausprägung entlang des Höhengradienten. Es handelt sich hier in beiden Straten zusammenfassend vor allem um vier Faktoren: Temperatur, Feuchtigkeit (umfaßt relative Luftfeuchtigkeit, Nebel, Regen und Staunässe), Nistraumverknappung und Nahrungsverknappung. Die in dieser Studie festgestellte signifikant positive Korrelation von Arten- und Temperaturabnahme betont die besondere Bedeutung des Parameters Temperatur. Diese wirkt einerseits durch eine Beeinträchtigung des Stoffwechsels direkt auf adulte Tiere und Brut und andererseits indirekt über die Veränderung abiotischer (Feuchtigkeit und Nistraum) und biotischer (Nahrung) Parameter. Die jeweiligen relativen Anteile von direktem und indirektem Temperatureinfluß, die mit zunehmender Höhe zur Artenabnahme führen, sind mit den vorliegenden Daten nicht quantifizierbar. Zudem verändern sich die Relationen entlang des Höhengradienten. Anhand ökologischer Überlegungen kann dennoch eine Einschätzung der jeweiligen Bedeutung der Einzelfaktoren vorgenommen werden. Der direkte Einfluß von Temperatur wird in der vorliegenden Studie mehrfach verdeutlicht. Diacamma sp. zeigt beispielsweise eine verminderte Leistungsfähigkeit durch eine signifikant geringere Bauaktivität mit steigender Höhe. Zudem scheint Diacamma sp. in der Lage zu sein, die Architektur ihrer Nester so zu verändern, daß sie thermoregulatorisch der Temperaturabnahme entgegenwirkt. Diese ethologische Flexibilität ermöglicht Diacamma sp., ihr Vorkommen über ihre physiologische Toleranz hinaus auszudehnen. Ein weiterer Hinweis auf einen direkten Temperatureinfluß ergibt sich aus der generellen Reduktion der Koloniegrößen mit zunehmender Höhe. Sie könnte unter anderem durch eine verringerte Fouragieraktivität begründet sein. Weiterhin nimmt die Nestdichte in beiden Straten in dem Höhenbereich signifikant ab, in dem die Durchschnittstemperaturen unter den ökologisch für Ameisen kritischen Schwellenwert von 20°C sinken. Der überwiegende Teil der Ameisen beider Straten nistet in thermoregulatorisch ungünstigem Nistraum (z.B. kleines Totholz, Laub, Humusschicht, Karton). Daher kann die Temperaturabnahme direkt zu einer Nistraumverknappung führen. Am Boden hat die temperaturinduzierte Zunahme von Staunässe mit steigender Höhe einen zusätzlichen negativen Effekt auf die Ressource Nistraum. Insbesondere die Schicht, in der die meisten Nester gefunden wurden (Humus-Wurzel-Schicht), ist davon betroffen. Zudem führt die signifikant an Höhe zunehmende Humus-Wurzel-Schicht dazu, daß der Oberboden im Übergang zwischen Tiefland- und unterem Bergregenwald immer weniger als Nistraum zur Verfügung steht. Im Bergregenwald hingegen treten durch vermehrten Epiphytenbewuchs für Bodenameisen neue Nistmöglichkeiten in der niederen Vegetation auf. In der Vegetation werden durch zunehmende Feuchtigkeit die Kartonnester instabil und damit in größeren Höhen unbrauchbar. Zudem trägt die temperaturabhängige Veränderung der Wuchsform des unteren Bergregenwaldes durch eine räumliche Verkleinerung des Gesamtlebensraumes zu einer Reduzierung der Nist- und Nahrungsressourcen bei. Die Nahrungsverfügbarkeit für Ameisen wird am Boden und in der niederen Vegetation ebenfalls negativ von Temperatur und Feuchtigkeit beeinflußt. Am Boden wird die Nahrungsverknappung z.B. durch den signifikant zunehmenden Nistabstand und den signifikant abnehmenden Beuteeintrag / Zeit von Diacamma sp. Kolonien deutlich. Es ist anzunehmen, daß Nahrungsmangel bei ihrer Verbreitungsgrenze von 1050 m eine wichtige Rolle spielt. Die Nahrungsverknappung für die räuberisch lebenden Bodenameisen wird vermutlich vor allem durch die Abnahme wichtiger Beutegruppen (z.B. Termiten) verursacht. Weiterhin hindert (Stau)Nässe kleine Ameisenarten (die große Mehrheit der hier gesammelten Arten) an der Nahrungssuche. In der niederen Vegetation verursacht der Wechsel des Florentyps auf Familienniveau zwischen Tieflandregenwald und Bergregenwald mit großer Wahrscheinlichkeit eine entscheidende Verknappung der Nahrungsressourcen über die Abnahme von Pflanzen mit extrafloralen Nektarien und der mit Ameisen assoziierten Trophobionten. Die Arten- und Abundanzabnahme der Ameisen verstärkt diese Tendenz wiederum durch negative Rückkopplung, da eine geringere Nachfrage das Angebot bzw. die Produktion der Nahrungssubstrate reduziert. Die vorliegenden Ergebnisse geben weiterhin Hinweise, welche Faktoren bei der Faunenverarmung in anthropogen veränderten Habitaten eine wichtige Rolle spielen können. Der größte Teil der Artenvielfalt des untersuchten primären Regenwaldes wird von kleinen Arten gestellt. Diese wiederum weisen in besonderem Maße eine Sensibilität gegenüber mikroklimatischen Veränderungen auf. Insbesondere abiotische Extreme wie Nässe und niedrige Temperaturen oder Trockenheit in Kombination mit hohen Temperaturen sind Faktoren, die sie am Fouragieren und Nisten hindern können. Daher trägt eine gut ausgebildete Laubstreu- bzw. Humusschicht grundsätzlich zur Artenvielfalt der Bodenameisen bei. Die Laubstreuschicht dient als Fouragierstratum, die Humusschicht als Hauptniststratum, und beide zusammen wiederum sind ein Schutz gegen die Austrocknung des Oberbodens. Ihre Bewahrung sowie die eines möglichst ausgewogenen Mikroklimas sind Grundvoraussetzung für die Vermeidung einer Artenverarmung. Für die niedrige Ausbreitungsgrenze von Ameisen an feucht-tropischen Höhengradienten (ca. 2300 m) scheinen spezielle Charakteristika ihrer eusozialen Lebensweise entscheidend zu sein. Hier sind insbesondere die ökologische Notwendigkeit geschützten Nistraums, energieaufwendiger Fouragierleistung und hoher Brut-Entwicklungstemperatur sowie die Unfähigkeit zur aktiven Nest- Temperaturerhöhung zu nennen. Historisch tiergeografische Gründe scheinen für die starke Abnahme der Ameisenvielfalt mit zunehmender Höhe bzw. für ihre Ausbreitungsgrenzen eine eher untergeordnete Rolle zu spielen. Temperaturabnahme allein bedingt jedoch nicht zwingend eine Artenabnahme, wie im unteren Bergregenwald an der gleichbleibenden Artenzahl des Bodenstratums deutlich wird. Die Bodenameisen müssen hier Lösungswege gefunden haben, dauerhaft mit weit unter 20°C liegenden Temperaturen, starker Nässe und geringer Sonneneinstrahlung zurecht zu kommen. Insofern können in den submontanen und montanen Bereichen der Regenwälder Höhenspezialisten vermutet werden, die jedoch nicht die subalpinen Regionen erreichen. Zusammenfassend ist festzuhalten, daß für eine hohe Artenvielfalt von Ameisen eine relativ hohe Temperatur, ausgewogen hohe Feuchtigkeit, Nistraumvielfalt und Nahrungsmenge sowie -qualität von entscheidender Bedeutung sind. Eine nähere experimentelle Analyse ihres jeweiligen relativen Gewichtes und ihrer konkreten Wirkweise auf einzelne Arten bzw. Artengruppen wäre für die Zukunft wünschenswert.
In the past century, scientists have realized that venoms are a source of a number of natural substances presenting a wide range of pharmacological properties and often displaying a high specificity for their targets. Thus, the field of toxinology came into being, which is defined as the study of toxic substances of biological origin. Toxins are found in a wide variety of animals, including fish, cone snails, scorpions, snakes, and even some mammals. To be classified as venom, these must contain substances, i.e. toxins, which disturb physiological processes and must be deliberately delivered to the target animal. Snakes have evolved one of the most sophisticated mechanisms for venom delivery. Envenomation by snakebite can induce and inhibit aggregation/agglutination of platelets as well as inhibit/activate hemostasis, but also disrupt other physiological functions via neurotoxins and angioneurin growth factors. Snake venoms contain a substantial amount of C-type lectin-related proteins (CLRPs) which are known to function, notably, as integrin inhibitors. CLRPs are heterodimers composed of homologous α and β subunits which can assemble either covalently or noncovalently to oligomers, resulting in αβ, (αβ)2 and (αβ)4 structures. Some of the main targets of CLRPs are membrane receptors, coagulation factors, and proteins essential to hemostasis. The platelet collagen receptors GPVI and α2β1 integrin as well as the von Willebrand factor receptor GPIb play important roles in platelet activation and aggregation and are considered main targets of antithrombotic drugs. In this thesis, the integrin α2β1 is particularly considered as it is the sole collagen-binding integrin on platelets. Reduced expression of this platelet receptor results in dysfunction of platelet responses. Equivalently, overexpression of α2β1 integrin results in an increased risk of thrombosis. As a result, selective inhibitors of the collagen-α2β1 interaction could give rise to effective antithrombotic drugs. Integrins are large receptors which mediate cell-cell contacts and the binding of cells to the extracellular matrix (ECM). Therefore, they play a role in physiological processes, e.g. hemostasis and immunity, as well as in pathological processes, e.g. tumor angiogenesis and atherosclerosis. 18 α and 8 β integrin subunits, with nine α subunits containing an additional A domain, associate non-covalently to form 24 heterodimers with distinct binding specificities. Integrin collagen receptors are a subclass of four receptors which all utilize the β1 subunit. The α2β1 integrin is a collagen-binding receptor expressed not only on platelets, but also on endothelial and epithelial cells. Consequently, this integrin is also essential for cell adhesion and migration playing a role in angiogenesis as well as tumor metastasis. To date, there are five known antagonists of α2β1 integrin: EMS16, rhodocetin, vixapatin, and most recently rhinocetin and flavocetin-A. The first four have been shown to be specific for the integrin α2A domain, the major collagen-binding domain. All these antagonists are CLRPs and present new leads for drug design. In the past few years, many insights into the structure and function of rhodocetin were obtained. Monoclonal antibodies proved to be advantageous in disclosing this information, making them not only useful as therapeutic agents, but also as tools for protein characterization. The venom of the Vipera palaestinae snake was recently shown to contain an α2β1 integrin inhibitor, which prevented the integrin from binding collagen. This inhibitor, called vixapatin, was the initial focus of this dissertation. Vixapatin’s interaction with the α2β1 integrin needed further characterization on a molecular and cellular level to assess its medical potential and monoclonal antibodies were to be used as a tool. Originally, vixapatin had been isolated by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography. To avoid the stringency of this method, for this study, it was replaced with gentler chromatographic methods. First, the α2β1 integrin inhibitor was isolated from the crude snake venom with affinity chromatography using the α2A domain as bait, establishing a method to quickly screen venoms for α2β1-binding proteins which affect the collagenintegrin interaction. The applicability of this method to other snake venoms was shown by isolating an α2A domain-specific toxin from the venom of Trimeresurus flavoviridis. To allow further characterization of both these toxins, gel filtration and ion exchange chromatography were employed to purify the protein without the α2A domain. These classical protein purification methods resulted in similar separation patterns of both the V. palaestinae and T. flavoviridis venom proteins. Purified proteins exhibiting the potential of inhibiting integrinbinding to collagen were analyzed by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis. Both VP-i and flavocetin-A, the integrin inhibitors from V. palaestinae and T. flavoviridis, respectively, were shown to have more complex structures than was evident from the purification. Each consisted of four low-molecular-weight proteins which assembled into two bands (for VP-i) or one single band (for flavocetin-A) under non-reducing conditions. Mass spectrometry analyses revealed VP-i to belong to the family of CLRPs, just like vixapatin does. However, these two proteins differed in their primary sequences and only showed homology to one another. The toxin purified from T. flavoviridis revealed this toxin to be flavocetin-A, a heterodimeric CLRP which had so far only been shown to have GPIb-binding activity. At the time of flavocetin-A’s purification, flavocetin-B was co-purified; flavocetin-B consists of the same two α and β subunits, plus an additional γ subunit. As no sequence information is known to date for the γ subunit, it may be one of the additional proteins purified here, along with an additional δ subunit. Therefore, the toxin isolated here may actually consist of four different subunits forming a tetramer of two different heterodimers, generating an (αβ)2(γδ)2 structure. This proposed (αβ)2(γδ)2 flavocetin-A structure has binding sites for both α2β1 integrin and GPIb, with no sterical overlap, as shown by affinity chromatography using the α2A domain and the extracellular domain of the GPIb receptor. The potential of VP-i and flavocetin-A to inhibit integrin-binding to type I collagen was shown during purification: Both toxins efficiently bind to the integrin α2A domain; also, VP-i and vixapatin bind to the A domain with the same affinity. Surface plasmon resonance showed the interaction of flavocetin-A with the α2β1 integrin to be extremely strong and association to be very fast. Furthermore, both toxins were shown to inhibit binding of the wildtype integrin to collagen: VP-i and flavocetin-A acted antagonistically on cell adhesion and cell migration. Initially, the interaction between VP-i and α2β1 integrin was to be further characterized with the help of monoclonal antibodies. However, this proved problematic, the procedure requiring various optimizations. Although, after expert consultation, some monoclonal antibodies could be obtained, the cells were extremely sensitive and gave unsatisfactory results when tested as detection tools in Western blot and immunoassays. Concluding, two novel α2β1 integrin inhibitors were discovered: VP-i and flavocetin-A, which were purified using the same procedure and which have similar functions. Both are Ctype lectin-related proteins which effectively inhibit cell adhesion and migration. This underlines that nature has instrumentalized CLRPs to specifically inhibit α2β1 integrin. Further characterization of VP-i and flavocetin-A will be able to provide leads for future drug development.
In the 'Golden Age of Antibiotics', between 1940 and 1970, the global pharmaceutical companies discovered many antibiotics, such as cephalosporins, tetracyclines, aminoglycosides, glycopeptides, etc., as well as antifungal and antiparisitic agents. Due to several reasons, e.g. the steady re-discovery of already known NPs and the associated high costs, many pharmaceutical companies have significantly scaled back or totally abandoned their NP discovery programs since the late 20th century. Instead those companies started to focus on drug discovery based on combinatorial synthesis and thereby on the creation of enormous synthetic libraries containing small molecules. Unfortunately, this synthetic approach dealing with the optimization of existing NP or antibiotic has its limitations. As a result, leading pharmaceutical companies are re-conducting NPs research to discover new antimicrobials for the upcoming antimicrobial resistance threat. The Natural Product Center of Excellence, a collaboration between Sanofi-Aventis and Fraunhofer IME, is advancing in this context the discovery and development of novel antimicrobial agents for the treatment of infectious diseases through the testing of Sanofi's microbial extract library and strain collection. The aim of the present PhD thesis was the discovery and isolation of novel antimicrobial compounds with improved activities and/or novel MOAs as potential lead compound for a further drug discovery.
5-LO is the key enzyme in the biosynthesis of proinflammatory leukotrienes, converting arachidonic acid to 5-HPETE, and in a second step 5-HPETE to leukotriene A4. Although the 5-LO promoter possesses characteristics of so called housekeeping genes, such as lack of TATA/CCAAT boxes and existence of several Sp1 binding sites, the 5 -LO gene is tissue specifically expressed in primarily immune competent cells of myeloid origin including granulocytes, monocytes, macrophages, mast cells and B-lymphocytes. 5-LO gene expression in MM6 and HL-60 cells is strongly induced after differentiation of the cells with TGF-beta and 1,25(OH)2D3. In some monocytic cancer cell lines, such as HL-60 TB and U937, TGF-beta and 1,25(OH)2D3 treatment are not able to activate 5-LO gene transcription. It was demonstrated, that in these cell lines the 5-LO core promoter is heavily methylated and that only demethylation by the DNA methyltransferase inhibitor 5-aza-2 deoxycytidine (Adc) upregulated the 5-LO mRNA levels. It was also shown that the histone deacetylase inhibitor TsA could induce 5-LO mRNA levels, but only in 1,25(OH)2D3/TGF-beta inducible MM6 cells. Interestingly the 1,25(OH)2D3/TGF-beta effect on 5-LO expression is reduced, when combined with TsA. Reporter gene assays revealed that 5-LO promoter activity is strongly induced after 24 h treatment with 330 nM TsA (construct N10 up to 35 fold in HeLa cells). The effect is dependent on the presence of the proximal Sp1 binding site GC4 (-53 bp to –48 bp in relation to the major TIS) in both HeLa and MM6 cells. In vitro binding of the transcription factor Sp1 to this site has been demonstrated in gel shift assays and DNase I footprints. Mutation of the binding site resulted in a loss of basal promoter activity in both 5-LO negative HeLa cells and in 5-LO positive MM6 cells, as well as in the loss of TsA inducibility. The mutational study of different Sp1 binding sites in a larger promoter context revealed the interaction or respectively the additive effect of the multiple Sp1 binding sites of the 5-LO promoter on basal as well as on TsA upregulated promoter activity. However, GC4 seems to be of special relevance for both the basal promoter activity, possibly recruiting the basal transcription machinery, as well as for the TsA induced upregulation of 5-LO promoter activity. TsA does not alter the protein expression levels of Sp1 and Sp3 as investigated in Western blot analysis, neither in HeLa nor in MM6 cells. DNA affinity purification assays revealed that TsA had no effect on the DNA affinity of Sp1 or Sp3. In vitro binding of both Sp1 and Sp3 to the 5-fold GC box, GC4 and GC5 was demonstrated by DAPA analysis, but histone deacetylase inhibition did not change the associated protein amounts. Finally, in vivo binding of Sp1 and Sp3 was investigated in chromatin immunoprecipitation assay (ChIP) in MM6 cells. TsA clearly induced the association of both proteins to the promoter area surrounding the TIS. Upon TsA treatment also RNA polymerase II binding to the area surrounding the TIS (-318 to +52 bp) was increased and even initiated in the more distal promoter parts –1049 to –292 bp, which are negatively regulated in reporter gene assays. Interestingly histone H4 is already highly acetylated without TsA treatment and the acetylation status of H4 remains unchanged after histone deacetylase inhibition, indicating an open chromatin structure of the 5-LO gene in MM6 cells. In a cotransfection study with Sp1 and Sp3, the transactivating potential of factors was investigated and in accordance with the ChIP data, Sp1 and Sp3 increased the promoter activity, but only after TsA treatment. In gel shift assays, the influence of DNA methylation on Sp1 binding was investigated. The results indicate different roles for the three proximal promoter sites. Whereas Sp1 binding to the 5-fold GC box and GC4 is impaired by DNA methylation, binding to GC5 is even increased. A cotransfection study with methylated 5-LO promoter constructs and the murine methyl-CpG binding proteins suggest MBD1 involvement in the regulation of the 5-LO promoter. Since in gel shifts Sp1 binding is inhibited by DNA methylation, at least to the 5-fold GC box and the activating element GC4, and similarly the mutation/deletion of the same sites strongly reduces or inhibits promoter activity, it is likely to assume, that the loss of promoter activity after in vitro methylation is in the first place due to impaired Sp1/Sp3 binding. Together the data underline the importance and complexity of Sp1/Sp3 binding to the GC rich sites in the regulation of 5-LO promoter activity in response to the histone deacetylase inhibitor TsA as well as in respect to DNA methylation.
The present work wishes to contribute with information on two members of the primary active transporter group, which differ both in structure and function: Wilson Disease Protein which uses the energy released by ATP hydrolysis to transport copper across cell membranes, and Proteorhodopsin, which uses the energy of light to build up a proton gradient across the bacterial cell membrane, both heterologously expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes. The surface detection experiments using HA-tagged WNDP confirm the proposed topology of WNDP. The HA-tag per se does not interfere with the function of WNDP, as shown for WNDP HA56 by ATP-dependent phosphorylation after expression in Sf9 cells. Sequence modifications within the WNDP HA56 template-construct reveal some interesting features: i) the N-terminal domain, which contains the 6 metal binding sites, is not necessary for plasma membrane targeting; ii) elevated surface expression of WNDP was observed when the carboxy terminus containing the tri-Leu motif is missing, which suggests that this motif might be involved in the retrieval of the protein from the plasma membrane; iii) the mutations TGE>AAA (proposed to lock the protein in the E1 conformation and lead to constitutive plasma membrane localisation) and D1027A (phosphorylation deficient) did not interfere with the surface localisation of the protein; iv) the mutations CPC>SPS (copper transport deficient) and H1069Q (phosphorylation deficient, most common mutation in Wilson Disease) reduced plasma membrane expression to less then 50%. Western blot analysis shows that the overall expression level of all constructs is similar to that of the reference construct WNDP HA56. These findings suggest that motifs involved in copper binding and catalytic activity do not interfere with plasma membrane targeting of WNDP in Xenopus oocytes. However, the H1069Q mutation could interfere with the distribution of WNDP protein within the cells. In the case of Proteorhodopsin, data presented in this work support earlier observations according to which proteorhodopsin can operate as an outwardly and inwardly directed light-driven ion pump. The residues proposed to play the roles of proton donor (E108) and acceptor (D97) are important for proton translocation. In the absence of an anionic residue at position 97 no outward pumping takes place, but inward charge translocation may occurs under appropriate conditions. An M-like state similar to that known from BR detectably accumulates under neutral pH conditions or under conditions where reprotonation of the Schiff base from the cytoplasmic side is slowed down, as in case of the mutants at position 108. Under acidic conditions PR pumps inwardly under the concerted action of pH and transmembrane potential. The experiments performed in parallel with PR and BR wild-types brought not only interesting information about similarities and differences between the two retinylidene ion pumps, but also led to the observation that the life-time of the M state in BR wild-type can be extended in addition to hyperpolarising transmembrane potentials also by extracellular acidic pH, when the proton gradient through the cell membrane is directed opposite to the ion transport (i.e. when the electrochemical gradient opposing the direction of proton transport increases). Direct photocurrent measurements of HA-tagged PR and BR have shown that the inserted tag may interfere with the functionality of the protein. Next to E108 and D97 in PR other residues in the vicinity of the retinal binding pocket contribute to the translocation of protons, as exemplified by the mutant L105Q: additionally to changing the absorption maximum of the protein, this mutant is a less effective proton pump than the wild type. The example of PR suggests that transduction of light energy by – and reaction mechanisms of retinylidene ion pumps have not been entirely deciphered by the extensive studies of bacteriorhodopsin.
Pretubulysin (PT), a biosynthetic precursor of the myxobacterial compound tubulysin D, was recently identified as a novel microtubule-targeting agent (MTA) causing microtubule destabilization. MTAs are the most frequently used chemotherapeutic drugs. They are well studied regarding their direct cytotoxic effects against various tumors as well as for their anti-angiogenic and vascular-disrupting action addressing endothelial cells of the tumor vasculature. However, the impact of MTAs on endothelial cells of the non-tumor vasculature has been largely neglected, although tumor cell interactions with the healthy endothelium play a crucial role in the process of cancer metastasis. Besides their use as potent anti-cancer drugs, some MTAs such as colchicine are traditionally used or recommended for the therapy of inflammatory diseases. Here, too, the role of endothelial cells has been largely neglected, although the endothelium is crucially involved in regulating the process of inflammation.
In the present study, the impact of PT on tumor-endothelial cell interactions was therefore analyzed in vitro to gain insights into the mechanism underlying its anti-metastatic effect that was recently confirmed in vivo. In the second part of this work, the influence of PT and other MTAs, namely the microtubule-destabilizing compounds vincristine (VIN) and colchicine (COL) and the microtubule-stabilizing drug paclitaxel (PAC), on leukocyte-endothelial cell interactions was investigated in vitro and in vivo (only PT). It is important to mention that in all in vitro experiments solely endothelial cells and not tumor cells or leukocytes were treated with the MTAs to strictly focus on the role of the endothelium in the action of these compounds.
The impact of PT on tumor-endothelial cell interactions was analyzed in vitro by cell adhesion and transendothelial migration assays as well as immunocytochemistry using the breast cancer cell line MDA-MB-231 and primary human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). The treatment of HUVECs with PT increased the adhesion of MDA cells onto the endothelial monolayer, whereas their transendothelial migration was reduced by the compound. Thereafter, the influence of PT on the endothelial cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) E-selectin, N-cadherin, ICAM-1, VCAM-1 and galectin-3 and on the CXCL12/CXCR4 chemokine system was examined, since they might be involved in the PT-triggered tumor cell adhesion. Interestingly, although PT induced the upregulation of ICAM-1, VCAM-1, N-cadherin and CXCL12, cell adhesion assays using neutralizing antibodies or the CXCL12 inhibitor AMD3100 revealed that all these molecules were dispensable for the PT-evoked tumor cell adhesion. As PT induces the formation of interendothelial gaps and MDA cells might adhere onto components of the underlying extracellular matrix (ECM), the precise location of MDA cells attached to the PT-treated endothelial monolayer was investigated. Instead of a direct interaction between tumor and endothelial cells, this work showed that MDA cells preferred to adhere to the ECM component collagen that was exposed within PT-triggered endothelial gaps. Both the PT-evoked increase in tumor cell adhesion onto and the decrease in trans-endothelial migration were completely abolished when β1-integrins were blocked on MDA cells. Similar results were obtained when endothelial cells were treated with VIN and COL but not PAC, indicating that the observed effects of PT depend on its microtubule-destabilizing activity.
The impact of PT, VIN, COL and PAC on leukocyte-endothelial cell interactions was analyzed in vivo (only PT) by intravital microscopy of the mouse cremaster muscle and in vitro by cell adhesion assays using the monocyte-like cell line THP-1 and TNFα-activated human dermal microvascular endothelial cells (HMEC-1). While PT did not affect the rolling of leukocytes on the endothelium, their firm adhesion onto and transmigration through the activated endothelium was reduced by PT in vivo. In accordance, the treatment of HMEC-1 with PT, VIN and COL decreased the TNFα-induced adhesion of THP-1 cells onto the endothelial monolayer, whereas PAC had no influence on this process. Thereafter, the influence of PT, VIN, COL and PAC on endothelial ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 was examined, since these molecules are substantially involved in the firm adhesion of leukocytes onto the endothelium. The cell surface protein expression of ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 was reduced by PT, VIN and COL in activated endothelial cells, whereas PAC did only slightly affect the TNFα-induced upregulation of VCAM-1. As the pro-inflammatory transcription factor NFκB plays a crucial role in the TNFα-induced expression of these CAMs, the impact of the MTAs on the NFκB promotor activity was investigated. While PT, VIN and COL decreased the activation of NFκB in activated endothelial cells, PAC did not affect this process. However, in contrast to the strong effects regarding the cell surface protein expression of ICAM-1 and VCAM-1, the effects of PT, VIN and COL on the NFκB activity was rather low. Thus, the used MTAs might also affect other relevant signaling pathways and/or the intracellular transport of CAMs might be influenced by the impact of the MTAs on the microtubule network.
Taken together, the current study provides – at least in part – an explanation for the anti-metastatic potential of PT and gives first insights into the use of PT and VIN as anti-inflammatory drugs. Moreover, this work highlights the endothelium as an attractive target for the development of new anti-cancer and anti-inflammatory drugs.
Downy mildew of common sage (Salvia officinalis), caused by Peronospora salviae-officinalis, has become a serious problem in sage production worldwide. The causal agent of the disease belongs to the Pe. belbahrii species complex and was described as a species of its own in 2009. Nevertheless, very little is known about its infection biology and epidemiology. The aims of the current study were therefore to unravel the life cycle of this downy mildew and gain deeper insights into the epidemiology of the disease, as well as to clarify the species boundaries in the Pe. belbahrii species complex.
Infection studies showed that temperatures between 15 and 20 °C were most favourable for infection and disease progress. At 5 °C Pe. salviae-officinalis is still able to infect sage plants, but sporulation was only observed at higher temperatures. Furthermore, Pe. salviae-officinalis needs two events of leaf wetness or high humidity, a first one of at least three hours for conidial germination and penetration of the host, and a second one for sporulation. Additionally, contamination of sage seeds by Pe. salviae-officinalis was proven by seed washing and by PCR and DNA sequence comparisons, suggesting that infested seeds might play a major role in the fast spread of sage downy mildew, which is an important finding for phytosanitary or quarantine measures.
A protocol for fluorescence staining and confocal laser scanning microscopy was established and the whole life cycle of Pe. salviae-officinalis was tracked including oospore formation. The method was also used to examine samples of Pe. lamii on Lamium purpureum and Pe. belbahrii on Ocimum basilicum demonstrating the usefulness of this method for studying the infection process of downy mildews in general.
Peronospora species parasitizing S. sclarea, S. pratensis, O. basilicum, and Plectranthus scutellarioides were studied using light microscopy and molecular phylogenetic analyses based on six loci (ITS rDNA, cox1, cox2, ef1a, hsp90 and β-tubulin). The downy mildew on S. pratensis was shown to be distinct from Pe. salviae-officinalis and closely related to Pe. glechomae, and is herein described as a new taxon, Peronospora salviae-pratensis. The downy mildew on S. sclarea was found to be caused by Peronospora salviae-officinalis. The multi-gene phylogeny revealed that the causal agent of downy mildew on coleus is distinct from Pe. belbahrii on basil, and is herein described as a new taxon, Pe. choii.