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In the first part of this study, we have identified the two steroid hormones progesterone and norgestimate as novel TRPC channel blockers. Both substances blocked TRPC-mediated Ca2+ influx with micromolar activities in fluorometric measurements. TRPC channel inhibition did not seem to be a general steroid effect since another progestin, the norgestimate metabolite levonorgestrel, was not effective. Norgestimate was 4- to 5-fold more active on the TRPC3/6/7 subfamily compared to TRPC4/5, whereas progesterone was similarly potent. This selectivity of norgestimate was confirmed by patch clamp recordings. As norgestimate blocked channels directly gated by DAG with a fast kinetic, we assume the compound acts on the channel protein itself. This view was further substantiated by the lack of effects on IP3R-mediated Ca2+ release from the endoplasmic reticulum, which is activated in parallel with TRPCs by Gq/11-coupled receptor stimulation. Norgestimate did not only block ectopically expressed TRPC channels but also native, TRPC-mediated currents in rat aortic smooth muscle cells with similar activity. The usefulness of norgestimate as a tool compound for the investigation of physiological TRPC functions was tested in isolated vessel rings. Consistent with TRPC6 being an essential component of the alpha-1-adrenoceptor-activated cation channel, we demonstrated a direct vasorelaxant, endothelium-independent effect of norgestimate on rat aortic rings precontracted with phenylephrine. Thus, our results provide further experimental support for a role of TRPC6 in alpha-1-adrenergic vessel constriction. In the second part of this study, we screened a human aorta cDNA-library for novel TRPC4-interacting proteins with a modified yeast two-hybrid (Y2H) system in which the TRPC4-C-terminus was expressed as tetrameric bait protein, thereby mimicking the native channel conformation. Of the eleven interacting proteins found SESTD1 was chosen for further analyses since it contains a phospholipid-binding Sec14p-like domain and thus could be involved in regulation of TRPC channels by phospholipids. After the biochemical validation of the found interaction, the first spectrin domain of SESTD1 was then identified to interact with the CIRB domain of TRPC4 in directed Y2H tests. SESTD1 also co-immunoprecipitated with the closely related TRPC5 protein in which the SESTD1-binding domain is highly conserved. Independent of the CIRB site, co-immunoprecipitation with TRPC6 and the distantly related TRPM8 channel was observed indicating the existence of other sites in these channel proteins that mediate interaction with SESTD1. Analysis of SESTD1 gene expression in human tissues showed that its transcripts are ubiquitously expressed and tissues with significant coexpression with TRPC4 and -5 were identified. We have generated two polyclonal antisera directed against SESTD1 that consistently detected SESTD1 protein in brain, aorta, heart, and in smooth muscle and endothelial cells. The functional consequences of the found interaction were investigated by examination of the TRPC5-mediated Ca2+ influx in a clonal HM1 cell line stably expressing the channel. Since SESTD1 overexpression had no detectable effects on TRPC5-mediated Ca2+ influx, most likely due to expression of endogenous SESTD1, we knocked-down the native protein with specific siRNA. This procedure reduced TRPC5-mediated Ca2+ influx following receptor stimulation by 50%. Parallel biotinylation experiments did not reveal any differences in cell surface expressed TRPC5-protein, suggesting that reduction of TRPC5 activity resulted from a loss of a direct SESTD1 effect on the channel. In addition, in immunofluorescence experiments we observed that reduced SESTD1 protein levels resulted in a redistribution of the multifunctional protein ß-catenin from the plasma membrane to the cytosol. This result may point to an involvement of SESTD1 in formation and maintenance of adherens junctions. SESTD1 contains a phospholipid-binding Sec14p-like domain and we were the first to demonstrate its Ca2+-dependent binding to phosphatidic acid and all physiological phosphatidylinositol mono- and bisphosphates in vitro. The physiological function of this binding activity is not known at present, but it could play a role in regulation of associated TRPC channels. TRPC4 and -5 channels are activated by phospholipid hydrolysis and also bind phospholipids directly. The identification of SESTD1 as novel TRPC-interacting protein could thus be an important step forward in the investigation and better comprehension of the complex molecular mechanisms of TRP channel regulation by lipids.
G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) constitute an important class of integral membrane proteins that are involved in several signaling pathways. About 50% of the currently available drugs are targeted against these receptors and high-resolution structures of these receptors will be of immense importance from the perspective of designing specific and potent drugs. However, structure determination of these receptors and of membrane proteins in general, has been a very challenging task till date. A major limitation in the structure determination of these proteins is that they are present in minute amounts in the native tissues and therefore, they must be produced heterologously. Additionally, crystallization of GPCRs is difficult owing to their flexible nature and limited hydrophilic surface area available for crystal contacts. The aim of my Ph.D. thesis work is two fold, first, to address the problem of GPCR crystallization by using a fusion protein complex approach and second, to tailor Rhodobacter sphaeroides as an expression system for the heterologous production of GPCRs. In the first approach, R. sphaeroides was used as an expression system to generate a fusion protein complex of the photosynthetic reaction center (RC) with a GPCR, expecting that such a complex would be easier to crystallize than the receptor alone. The notion behind this approach is that the RC will act as a scaffold in providing surface area to create crystal contacts and at the same time, it will also reduce the flexibility of the receptor, hopefully without perturbing the functionality of the receptor. Based on the computational modelling experiments, two ways to generate a fusion complex were assigned. Long linkers were inserted between the subunits of the RC and the GPCR. The linkers were designed with a possibility of straightforward alteration of their length as they contained a number of restriction enzyme sites. A series of these constructs were designed and expressed in R. sphaeroides deletion strain, which did not possess the chromosomal RC genes. Though most of these fusion constructs could be successfully expressed, as analyzed by western blot, majority of them were not functional in terms of ligand binding of the GPCR component of the fusion complex. Interestingly, one of these constructs, where the M subunit of RC was directly fused to the human angiotensin II type 1a receptor (AT1aR), exhibited significant functional expression. Based on saturation binding analysis using [125I] iodotyrosyl4Sar1Ile8-angiotensin II (an AT1aR subtype specific antagonist), an expression level of 40+5 pmol/mg of total membrane protein was calculated. This expression level corresponds to approximately 0.3 mg of functional receptor per liter culture and it is significantly higher than the AT1aR expression in native tissues. Additionally, the binding affinity of the recombinant receptor for its endogenous ligand angiotensin II was found to be 1±0.1 nM, which is similar to that observed for the AT1aR in native tissues. More interestingly, the RC part of the fusion complex was structurally assembled in other words, properly folded as judged by the presence of the characteristic peaks at 760 nm, 800 nm and 850 nm by absorption spectroscopy. However, a slight change in the intensity of the peak at 800 nm was observed while comparing the spectra of native RC with that in the fusion protein complex. This slight variation might be due to the change in the protein environment. The fusion protein complex RC-AT1aR was functionally solubilized and purified using a decahistidine tag fused at the c-terminus of the AT1aR. Subsequently, the monodispersity and integrity of the complex was confirmed by size exclusion chromatography, which revealed a homogeneous peak. Additionally, it was also possible to solubilize and purify this complex in the presence of a fluorescein tagged angiotensin II ligand which provides a nice tool to judge the functionality of the AT1aR and integrity of the complex at the same time. The purified RC-AT1aR fusion complex was then subjected to three-dimensional (3-D) crystallization trials and it was possible to obtain reproducible crystals of this complex. The crystals were fluorescent (as the complex was purified in presence of fluorescently labelled angiotensin II) and needle or tetragonal in shape, but produced a powdery diffraction pattern. Further attempts to improve the crystallization condition and to optimize the cryo-conditions are underway. In addition, attempts are also being made to obtain the crystals of this complex with the antagonist (e.g. losartan) bound to the receptor. In view of several limitations in the heterologous expression of GPCRs, as the second part of my Ph.D. thesis, I decided to explore the possibilities of developing a novel expression system based on R. sphaeroides for production of recombinant GPCRs. The notion behind using this host is that lack of inclusion bodies and high concentration of membranes in R. sphaeroides would result in efficient functional overexpression of recombinant membrane proteins. For this purpose, a R. sphaeroides strain, modified by the deletion of the genes encoding the RC and the light harvesting proteins LH1 and LH2, was used. The genes for RC and LHs constitute about 85-90% of total membrane proteins in a R. sphaeroides cell. These membranes are normally housed in special membrane vesicles called intracytoplasmic membranes (ICMs) that can fill almost the entire cell volume under certain growth conditions. Synthesis of a heterologous protein under the control of the moderately strong photosynthetic superoperonic promoter should be coordinated with the synthesis of new membranes to harbour these proteins, thus acting as a natural induction system. Moreover, as most of the native membrane proteins are absent in this deletion strain, heterologously produced protein should not experience a shortage of molecular chaperones for proper folding and insertion. Additionally, the absence of inclusion bodies in this host should enhance the functional and homogenous population of the recombinant proteins. Three human GPCRs, namely the adenosine A2a receptor (A2a), the angiotensin II type 1a receptor (AT1aR) and the bradykinin subtype 2 receptor (B2R) were tested for expression and functionality in this system. Two different constructs were used to determine the optimal position and ribosome-binding site (RBS) in the superoperon for the highest expression level. Of these three receptors, the AT1aR and B2R were successfully produced, while the A2aR failed to express, producing green carotenoid free R. sphaeroides mutants, for unknown reasons. For the recombinant B2R, [3H] bradykinin binding analysis revealed a low functional expression level of 0.7-0.8 pmol/mg of total membrane protein. This expression level corresponds to 0.01 mg functional receptor per liter of culture and is not sufficient for large-scale expression of this receptor. However, for the recombinant AT1aR, [125I] iodotyrosyl4Sar1Ile8- angiotensin II binding analysis revealed an expression level of 12±1 pmol/mg of total membrane protein. This expression level corresponds to approximately 0.1 mg functional receptor per liter culture and this is significantly higher than the AT1aR expression in native tissues. This expression system is still in the nascent stages of development and there are several parameters, which are still to be assessed for the optimal use of this system for the production of GPCRs and other membrane proteins. In conclusion, my Ph.D. work presents a novel fusion protein complex based approach for obtaining crystallizable GPCRs and a novel expression system for producing heterologous GPCRs. It was possible, for the first time, to produce a functional RC-GPCR complex that could easily be crystallized, though further finetuning of the system is required. R. sphaeroides based novel expression system was successfully used to produce functional human GPCRs under the control of a moderately strong photosynthetic superoperonic promoter. This expression system represents a naturally induced system where the expression of a heterologous protein is coordinated with the synthesis of new membranes to harbour the recombinant protein. The fusion protein complex approach and the expression system presented here can hopefully be used as a general method to facilitate the expression and crystallization of other membrane proteins.
Natural killer (NK) cells are white blood lymphocytes of the innate immune system that have diverse biological functions, including recognition and destruction of certain microbial infections and neoplasms [1]. NK cells comprise ~ 10% of all circulating lymphocytes and are also found in peripheral tissues including the liver, peritoneal cavity and placenta. Resting NK cells circulate in the blood, but, following activation by cytokines, they are capable of extravasation and infiltration into most tissues that contain pathogen-infected or malignant cells [2-5]. NK cells discriminate between normal and abnormal cells (infected or transformed) through engagement and dynamic integration of multiple signaling pathways, which are initiated by germline-encoded receptors [6-8]. Healthy cells are protected from NK cell-mediated lysis by expression of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I ligands for NK cell inhibitory receptors [6, 9]. The MHC is a group of highly polymorphic glycoproteins that are expressed by every nucleated cell of vertebrates, and that are encoded by the MHC gene cluster. The human MHC molecules are termed human leucocyte antigen (HLA)-A, B and C molecules. Every NK cell expresses at least one inhibitory receptor that recognizes a self-MHC class I molecule. So, normal cells that express MHC class I molecules are protected from self-NK cells, but transformed or infected cells that have down-regulated MHC class I expression are attacked by NK cells [10]. There are 2 distinct subsets of human NK cells identified mainly by cell surface density of CD56. The majority (approximately 90%) of human NK cells are CD56dimCD16bright and express high levels of FcγRIII (CD16), whereas a minority (approximately 10%) are CD56brightCD16dim/- [11]. Resting CD56dim NK cells are more cytotoxic against NK-sensitive targets than CD56bright NK cells [12]. However, after activation with interleukin (IL)-2 or IL-12, CD56bright cells exhibit similar or enhanced cytotoxicity against NK targets compared to CD56dim cells [12-14]. The functions of NK cells are regulated by a balance of signals (Fig. 1.1). These are transmitted by inhibitory receptors, which bind MHC class I molecules, and activating receptors, which bind ligands on tumors and virus-infected cells [15]. These receptors are completely encoded in the genome, rather than being generated by somatic recombinations, like T- and B-cell receptors.
Für die geplanten Untersuchungen wurde eine eigene Methode für die Kultur primärer humaner Bronchialepithelzellen etabliert. Die Bronchialepithelzellen wurden aus Lungenteilresektaten durch eine cytologische Bürstung gewonnen. Die verwendeten Kulturschalen wurden mit Kollagen beschichtet. Als serumfreie Kulturmedien wurden ein Expansionsmedium und ein Differenzierungsmedium verwendet. Dabei enthielt das Expansionsmedium proliferationsfördernde Supplemente, was zu einer deutlich gesteigerten Zellausbeute gegenüber der Verwendung handelsüblicher Medien führte. Im Differenzierungsmedium wurden Supplemente verwendet, die für die Differenzierung und Ziliogenese bronchialer Epithelzellen erforderlich sind. Die Kultur erfolgte an einer Luft-Medium-Grenzfläche, die für Bronchialepithelzellen eine physiologische Umgebung darstellt. Die Charakterisierung der Kulturen zeigte keine Verunreinigungen mit Fibroblasten, Muskelzellen oder Zellen mesenchymalen Ursprungs. Das charakteristische kopfsteinplasterartige Erscheinungsbild, sowie der immunhistochemische Nachweis von Cytokeratin 18 belegten den bronchoepithelialen Charakter der Kulturen. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde mit der RT-kompetitive Multiplex-PCR (RCMP) eine Technik entwickelt, mit deren Hilfe die Expression von Genen in niedriger Kopienzahl oder aber in Proben mit geringer RNA-Menge nachgewiesen werden kann. Geringe Ausgangsmengen an RNA wiesen vor allem die Primärkulturen von humanem Bronchialepithel, als auch frische Gewebebürstungen des Bronchial- und Nasenepithels auf. Die RCMP basiert auf einer kompetitiven PCR und kombiniert eine exogen interne und endogen interne Standardisierung. Damit wurde die mRNA-Expression von bis zu vier Genen in einem Ansatz analysiert. Die RCMP löst dabei mehrere Probleme herkömmlicher PCR-Verfahren: 1. mRNAs mit hoher oder niedriger Kopienzahl können in einem Ansatz koamplifiziert werden. 2. Die semiquantitative Quantifizierung ist unabhängig von den Syntheseeffizienzen von Target und Referenzgenen. 3. Die RCMP kontrolliert Schwankungen der initialen RNA-Menge. 4. Die Unabhängigkeit der RCMP von der Kenntnis der initialen RNA Menge erlaubt auch die Bestimmung von Probenmaterial in dem nur geringe mRNA-Mengen vorhanden sind. Damit eignet sich die RCMP besonders für Expressionsstudien Materialien wie Bioptaten, Nasal- oder Bronchialbürstungen, sowie den Kulturen primärer Bronchialepithelzellen. Mit Hilfe der RCMP wurden erstmals die mRNA der Osmolyttransporter BGT-1, SMIT und TAUT in Bronchialepithelzellen nachgewiesen. Nach Behandlung mit hyperosmotischen Medien wurde die mRNA-Expression dieser Transporter stark induziert. Bronchialepithelzellen perzeptieren osmotische Belastungen und versuchen, ihnen entgegenzuwirken. Hyperosmotische Belastungen können in Bronchialepithelien zu einer Inflammation ohne zugrunde liegende Infektion führen. Dabei wird zeit- und dosisabhängig sowohl die Sekretion als auch die Expression von IL-8 induziert. An dieser Induktion ist die p38 MAP-Kinase beteiligt. Reaktive Sauerstoffspezies (ROS) sind sowohl an der Induktion der IL-8 Sekretion und Expression beteiligt, als auch an der Aktivierung der p38 MAPKinase. Weiterhin zeigte sich, dass die Induktion der Sekretion von IL-6 und IL-8 abhängig von osmotisch bedingten Änderungen des Zellvolumens ist. Auch hier wird bereits die p38 MAP-Kinase durch das Zellvolumen reguliert. Die Ergebnisse legen ein mögliches Modell für die initialen Vorgänge in der CF-Lunge nahe. Die Veränderungen des Ionenhaushalts bei der cystischen Fibrose, sowie die eingeschränkte Zellvolumenkontrolle bei CF-Zelllinien, weisen darauf hin, dass ein defektes CFTR-Protein zu einer von neutrophilen Granulozyten dominierten Inflammation führen kann, ohne das die Lunge bereits mit Erregern besiedelt wurde.
Die Alzheimer Demenz (AD) ist eine progressive, neurodegenerative Erkrankung, die weltweit die häufigste Form der Demenz darstellt und im mittleren bis späten Lebensabschnitt auftritt. Die auffälligsten histopathologischen Merkmale der AD beinhalten –neben dem Untergang von Nervenzellen und Synapsen vorwiegend im Temporal- und Parietallappen – das Auftreten von extrazellulären Ablagerungen aus fibrillogenem Aß1-42-Peptiden in senilen Plaques und intraneuronalen Akkumulationen von hyperphosphoryliertem Tau in so genannten neurofibrillären Bündeln. Derzeitig häufen sich Anhaltspunkte, nach denen die mitochondriale Dysfunktion eine entscheidende Rolle beim Nervenzelluntergang bei der AD spielt. Um genauere Informationen über die Ursache der mitochondrialen Dysfunktion zu erhalten, wurden in dieser Arbeit der Einfluss von Alzheimer-relevanten Faktoren, wie der Aß- und der Tau-Pathologie, sowie das Alter als wichtigster Risikofaktor der AD auf die mitochondriale Funktion untersucht. Als Tiermodelle standen hierfür Thy-1 APP transgene Mäuse, welche erhöhte Aß-Level ab einem Alter von 3 Monaten aufweisen (Blanchard et al., 2003), P301L transgene Mäuse, bei denen es ab einem Alter von 6 Monaten zur NFT-Formation kommt (Gotz et al., 2001b) und NMRI-Mäuse als Altersmodell zur Verfügung. Isolierte Hirn-Mitochondrien von Thy-1 APP transgenen Mäusen weisen unter basalen Bedingungen ein signifikant erniedrigtes Membranpotential im Vergleich zu dem von non-tg Tieren auf. Die Inkubation mit H2O2 und SNP führt weiterhin zu einem signifikant reduzierten mitochondrialen Membranpotential in isolierten Mitochondrien von non-tg Tiere. Demgegenüber können Mitochondrien Thy-1 APP transgener Mäuse offenbar nicht durch oxidativen und nitrosativen Stress zusätzlich geschädigt werden, wofür wahrscheinlich eine Vielzahl von Kompensationsmechanismen verantwortlich ist. Im Gegensatz hierzu führt die Expression der human pathogenen Mutation P301L in isolierten Mitochondrien 15 Monate alter Mäuse zu einem nur tendenziell erniedrigten Membranpotential. In Anbetracht der weiteren Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit und publizierten Daten kann allerdings davon ausgegangen werden, dass das Membranpotential in P301L-Mitochondrien zu einem späteren Alter ebenfalls signifikant vermindert ist. Weiterhin demonstrierten fortführende Experimente einen Defekt der Komplex IV-Aktivität bei Thy-1 APP Mitochondrien und eine reduzierte Komplex I-Aktivität bei P301L-Mitochondrien. Passend zu diesen Daten sind sowohl Thy-1 APP- als auch P301L-Mitochondrien im Alter durch einen reduzierten Atmungskontrollindex gekennzeichnet, das heißt beide transgene Mauslinien weisen im Alter eine beeinträchtigte mitochondriale Atmungsrate auf. Ferner konnte der Einfluss von Aß auf die mitochondriale Atmungskette durch die Inkubation mit extrazellulär zugefügtem fibrillärem Aß zu non-tg Mitochondrien bestätigt werden. Die Inkubation mit Aß führt in non-tg Mitochondrien zu einer reduzierten State 3-Atmung, welche sich ebenfalls in einem verminderten Atmungskontrollindex widerspiegelt. Dieses Ergebnis verdeutlicht nochmals den Zusammenhang der mitochondrialen Dysfunktion mit Aß. Des Weiteren waren isolierte Hirn-Mitochondrien von Mäusen unterschiedlicher Altersstufen mit fortschreitendem Alter durch eine signifikant stärker ausgeprägte Depolarisation des mitochondrialen Membranpotentials gekennzeichnet. Daneben reagieren isolierte Mitochondrien von alten Tieren nach Inkubation mit spezifischen Inhibitoren der Komplexe I, III und IV mit einer stärkeren Abnahme des mitochondrialen Membranpotentials als junge Tiere. Von besonderem Interesse für die hier vorliegende Arbeit war vor allem die erhöhte Empfindlichkeit der Komplexe I und IV in alten Mäusen, da diese Defizite ebenfalls mit der Tau- und Aß-Pathologie in Verbindung gebracht worden sind. Ferner ergab die direkte Messung der Komplex I Aktivität eine signifikante Verminderung der NADH-Ubiquinon-Reduktase-Aktivität im Alter. In Übereinstimmung weisen isolierte Mitochondrien unter Verwendung von Komplex I-Substraten eine mit dem Alter zunehmende Verminderung der Atmungsraten. Es scheint, dass das vermehrte Auftreten mitochondrialer Mutationen im Alter in Kombination mit spezifischen Defekten der Atmungsketten-Komplexe durch synergistische Effekte das späte Einsetzen der mitochondrialen Dysfunktion in Thy-1 APP und P301L transgenen Tieren bzw. bei der AD erklären könnte. Im zweiten Teil dieser Arbeit konnte gezeigt werden, dass sowohl Ginkgo biloba Extrakt als auch Piracetam protektive Effekte auf die mitochondriale Funktion ausüben. Nach jeweils 14-tägigen Behandlungsstudien konnte gezeigt werden, dass sowohl Gingko biloba Extrakt als auch Piracetam in der Lage waren, das mitochondriale Membranpotential nach oxidativem und nitrosativem Stress zu schützen. Des Weiteren konnte bei beiden Stoffen eine Stabilisation der mitochondrialen Atmungskettenkomplexe nach einer Behandlung mit spezifischen Komplexinhibitoren beobachtet werden. Die protektiven Effekte von Ginkgo biloba können durch zwei Mechanismen erklärt werden, durch seine Radikalfänger-Eigenschaften und zum anderen durch seine stabilisierende Funktion der mitochondriale Funktion. Demgegenüber scheint Piracetam die Mitochondrien durch seine membranstabilisierenden Eigenschaften zu schützen. Durch die Erhöhung der Membranfluidität der inneren mitochondrialen Membran scheint Piracetam die Funktion der mitochondrialen Atmungsketten-Komplexe zu stabilisieren. Ginkgobiloba Extrakt und Piracetam scheinen demzufolge zwei sehr interessante Präventions- und Therapieoptionen bei Patienten mit leichten kognitiven Störungen bzw. bei Patienten mit AD dar.
Optimierung Apolipoprotein-modifizierter Albumin-Nanopartikel zur Überwindung der Blut-Hirn-Schranke
(2007)
Das Gehirn höherer Säugetiere ist durch die Blut-Hirn-Schranke vor dem Eindringen toxischer und schädlicher Substanzen geschützt. Allerdings bildet diese Barriere auch ein Hindernis für die gezielte medikamentöse Therapie von Erkrankungen des zentralen Nervensystems wie zum Beispiel Alzheimer, Gehirntumore oder Parkinson. Leider sind nur wenige potentielle Arzneistoffe für die Therapie dieser Krankheiten in der Lage die Blut-Hirn-Schranke zu überwinden. Somit stellt die Blut-Hirn-Schranke einen limitierenden Faktor für die Arzneimitteltherapie dar. Diese Doktorarbeit beschäftigt sich mit der Herstellung, Charakterisierung, in vitro und in vivo Testung Liganden-modifizierter Nanopartikel auf Proteinbasis zur Überwindung der Blut-Hirn-Schranke. Als Ligand wurde das Apolipoprotein E, ein Bestandteil von physiologisch vorkommenden HDL, VLDL und LDL-Partikel, verwendet, welches sich in vorangegangenen Untersuchungen als potentieller Ligand zum Transport von Nanopartikeln ins Gehirn erwiesen hat. Diese so mit Apolipoprotein modifizierten Nanopartikel wurden mit dem Modellarzneistoff Loperamid, einem nicht gehirngängigen Opioid, beladen. Diese Zubereitung wurde Mäusen injiziert und der analgetische Effekt mittels des Tail-Flick-Tests bestimmt. Um auch eine therapeutische Anwendung zu erzielen, wurden Apolipoprotein modifizierte Partikel beladen mit dem Zytostatikum Doxorubicin entwickelt und die chemotherapeutische Effizienz an Gehirntumor tragenden Ratten getestet.
Crohn´s disease (CD) and Ulcerative colitis (UC) are idiopathic inflammatory disorders. Environmental factors, infectious microbes, ethnic origin, genetic susceptibility, and a dysregulated immune system can result in mucosal inflammation. However, the etiology of both CD and UC still remains largely unclear. Inflammatory bowel diseaserelated animal models suggest that a combination of genetic susceptibility factors and altered immune response driven by microbial factors in the enteric environment may contribute to the initiation and chronification of the disease. The intestinal immune system represents a complex network of different lymphoid and non-lymphoid cell populations as well as humoral factors. In inflammatory bowel disease, the controlled balance of the intestinal immune system is disturbed at all levels. In CD, naïve T cells preferably differentiate into Th1 or Th17 producing cells, while in UC, these cells differentiate into aberrant Th2 cells. Overall, in active inflammatory bowel disease effector T cell activity (Th1, Th17, Th2) predominates over regulatory T cells. Animal models of intestinal inflammation are indispensable for our understanding of the pathogenesis of CD and UC. When chosen appropriately, these models proved to be a helpful tool to investigate pathophysiological mechanisms, as well as to test emerging therapeutic options in the preclinical phase. 2,4,6-Trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS) and oxazolone are the two major chemicals applied to induce Th1- and Th2-skewed intestinal inflammation, respectively. Colitis can be induced in susceptible strains of mice by intrarectal instillation of the haptenating substances TNBS or oxazolone in ethanol, which is necessary for an initial desintegration of the epithelial barrier. TNBS or oxazolone are believed to haptenize colonic autologous or microbiotic proteins rendering them immunogenic to the host immune system. While TNBS administration in the presence of ethanol results in a transmural infiltrative disease in the entire colon based on an IL-12/IL-23 driven, Th1-or Th17 mediated response, oxazolone instillation finally leads to a colitis caused by a polarized Th2 IL-13-dominated lymphocyte response. Rectal oxazolone instillation in ethanol produces a more superficial inflammation that affects the distal half of the colon rather than the whole colon. Therapeutic modulation of the disturbed immune response in patients with inflammatory bowel disease still represents a complex challenge in the clinic. Currently, none of the therapeutic measure are disease specific and they generally target the pathophysiology downstream of the driving immunpathology. So, there is still the need to develop a tailored approach to prevention of the initiation and perpetuation of the inflammatory cascade before tissue injury occurs. One important aspect of this approach might involve the induction or re-establishment of immunological tolerance. FTY720 following rapid phosphorylation to FTY-P by endogenous sphingosine kinases acts as a sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) receptor agonist and represents the prototype of a new generation of S1P receptor modulators. While changing currently its proposed mode of action still focus on the fact, that FTY720 effectively inhibits the egress of T-cells from lymph nodes, thereby reducing the number of antigen-primed/restimulated cells that re-circulate to peripheral inflammatory tissues. However, recent studies indicate, that its immunomodulatory properties might be more complex and exerted not only via interactions with other S1P receptor subtypes but also via a direct modulation of the inflammatory capacity of dendritic cells (DC) resulting in a modified regulation of T cell effector functions as well as in an induction of regulatory T cells and function. 1,25(OH)2D3, the active form of vitamin D, is a secosteroid hormone that has in addition to its central function in calcium and bone metabolism pronounced immune regulatory properties. The biological effects of calcitriol are mediated by the vitamin D receptor (VDR), a member of the superfamily of nuclear hormone receptors. A number of studies identified calcitriol/VDR as prominent negative regulators of Th1-type immune responses, whereas Th2 responses are not affected or even augmented. These effects have been mainly explained by direct activities on lymphocytes, subsequent studies clearly supported a role of calcitriol in modulating monocyte differentiation or DC maturation. However, to translate the immunosuppressive capacities of calcitriol into an effective immunointervention, a great challenge was the design of structural analogs of calcitriol that are devoid of adverse effects related to hypercalcemic activity. The intense study of the 25-oxa series generated a large number of calcitriol analogs exhibiting substantial dissociation between possible immunomodulatory capacities and undesired hypercalcemia. Especially, the combination of the 22-ene modification with the 25-oxa element as realized in ZK156979 yielded a very promising set of new analogs for further characterization in animal models resembling human autoimmune diseases. So, the overall aim of the studies presented here was to evaluate strategies of enhancing regulatory immunity in mouse models of Th1- and Th2-mediated colitis as a new therapeutic approach. To this end we used FTY720, 22-ene-25-oxa vitamin D (ZK156979), as well as the combination of calcitriol and dexamethasone to evaluate the respective pro-tolerogenic potential in intestinal inflammation models in mice. First, to induce Th1-mediated colitis a rectal enema of TNBS was given to Balb/c mice. FTY720 was administered i.p. from day 0-3 or 3-5. FTY720 substantially reduced all clinical, histopathologic, macroscopic, and microscopic parameters of colitis analyzed. The therapeutic effects of FTY720 were associated with a down-regulation of IL-12p70 and subsequent Th1 cytokines. Importantly, FTY720 treatment resulted in a prominent up-regulation of FoxP3, IL-10, TGFβ and CTLA4. Moreover, we observed a significant increase of CD25 and FoxP3 expression in isolated lamina propria CD4+ T cells of FTY720-treated mice. The impact of FTY720 on regulatory T cell induction was further confirmed by concomitant in vivo blockade of CTLA4 or IL-10R which significantly abrogated its therapeutic activity. Thus, our data provide new and strong evidence that besides its well-established migratory properties FTY720 down-regulates proinflammatory signals while simultaneously inducing the functional activity of CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells. In a second approach, the rectal instillation of oxazolone yielded a Th2-mediated colitis. Treatment with FTY720 prominently reduced the clinical and histopathologic severity of oxazolone-induced colitis, abrogating body weight loss, diarrhea, and macroscopic and microscopic intestinal inflammation. The therapeutic effects of FTY720 were associated with a prominent reduction of the key Th2 effector cytokines IL-13, IL-4 and IL-5. Moreover, FTY720 inhibited GATA3 and T1/ST2 expression, which represent distinct markers for Th2 differentiation and Th2 effector function. Thus, our data are supportive for the view that FTY720 exhibits beneficial prophylactic as well as therapeutic effects in Th2-mediated experimental colitis by directly affecting Th2 cytokine profiles, probably by reducing GATA3 and T1/ST2. Recently, we described 22-ene-25-oxa-vitamin D (ZK156979) as a representative of a novel class of low calcemic vitamin D analogs showing prominent immunomodulative capacities. Here, we used the Th1-mediated TNBS colitis to test its anti-inflammatory properties in vivo. We found that treatment with ZK156979 clearly inhibited the severity of TNBS-induced colitis without exhibiting calcemic effects. Both early and late treatment abrogated all the clinical macroscopic and microscopic parameters of colitis severity; in addition we observed a clear down-regulation of the relevant Th1 cytokine pattern including the T-box transcription factor, T-bet. On the other hand, application of ZK156979 increased local tissue IL-10 and IL-4. Finally, as a new approach we evaluated the pro-tolerogenic potential of calcitriol and dexamethasone in acute Th1-mediated colitis. Calcitriol and/or dexamethasone were administered i.p. from day 0-3 or from day 3-5 following the instillation of the haptenating agent. The combination of these steroids most effectively reduced the clinical and histopathologic severity of TNBS colitis. Th1-related parameters were down- while Th2 markers like IL-4 and GATA3 were up-regulated. Clearly distinguishable from known steroid effects calcitriol in particular promoted regulatory T cell profiles as indicated by a marked increase of IL-10, TGFß, FoxP3 and CTLA4. Furthermore, analysis of DC mediators responsible for a pro-inflammatory differentiation of T cells revealed a clear reduction of IL-12p70, and IL23p19 as well as IL-6 and IL-17. Thus, our data suggest the concept of a steroid-sparing application of calcitriol derivatives in inflammatory bowel disease. Furthermore, the data presented suggest that early markers of inflammatory DC and Th17 differentiation might qualify as new target molecules for both calcitriol as well as for selective immune modulating vitamin D analogs. In conclusion the data of these published investigations added to the substantial progress in understanding the biology of tolerogenic DC and regulatory T cells with respect to their roles in health and disease achieved in the past years. This has led to an increasing interest in the possibility of using DC and regulatory T cells as biological therapeutics to preserve and restore tolerance to self antigens and alloantigens. Especially DC may be helpful to exert their important roles in directing tolerance and immunity by modulation of subpopulations of effector T cells and regulatory T cells. The data demonstrated in the present studies may assist to define the divergent implications of new therapeutic concepts for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease, especially with regard to a possible auspicious impact on pro-tolerogenic DC and regulatory T cell functions. However, further studies are needed to fulfil our understanding of the complex immunomodulatory profiles of FTY720 as well as of calcitriol and its low calcemic analog ZK156979, thus accelerating their entry into the clinic as new therapeutic options for the cure of inflammatory bowel disease.
Bei endogenen Retroviren handelt es sich um feste Bestandteile des Genoms. Im Fall von PERV (porzine endogene Retroviren) existieren zusätzlich infektiöse, xenotrope Vertreter. Aufgrund dieser Tatsache ist es notwendig, diese replikationskompetenten Proviren aus dem Genom potentieller Donortiere für die Xenotransplantation zu entfernen. Mit dem Wissen um die chromosomale Lage und der damit verbundenen Möglichkeit des Nachweises per PCR wurde im Rahmen dieser Arbeit gezeigt, dass aufgrund einer polymorphen Verteilung ein Ausschluss dieser funktionellen Proviren, mittels konventioneller Züchtung, möglich ist. Allerdings stellen sowohl die deletierten und mutierten proviralen Sequenzen durch eine Rekombination oder eine Komplementation, als auch ekotrope PERV-C ein Restrisiko im Falle einer Xenotransplantation dar. Es ist eine PERV-A/C Rekombinante beschrieben ex vivo worden, welche eine höhere Infektiösität aufweist als alle bisher untersuchten PERV. Bis auf die Rezeptor-Bindedomäne stellt dieses Virus ein PERV-C dar. Deshalb sollten chromosomal PERV-C identifiziert werden, um bei polymorpher Verteilung im Schweinegenom durch entsprechende Züchtung diese aus dem Genom heraushalten zu können. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit ist es mit Hilfe einer speziellen PCR gelungen sieben Integrationsorte von PERV-C zu identifizieren. Da das Genom des Schweins bisher noch nicht komplett sequenziert ist, war es noch nicht möglich die gefundenen chromosomalen Bereiche zu kartieren. Dies wäre wiederum die Basis für eine Durchmusterung von Schweinen auf die Anwesenheit der gefundenen Proviren. Des Weiteren ist noch nicht bekannt, ob es sich bei diesen PERV-C um vollständige Proviren handelt, da aufgrund der verwendeten PCR und der sehr hohen Homologie verschiedener PERV untereinander nur provirale 3'Enden mit entsprechenden Flanken identifiziert werden konnten. Zusätzlich wurden in den Proben transgener Schweine PERV-C env spezifische Anteile nachgewiesen. Die Verteilung dieser Sequenzen, welche ebenfalls polymorph ist, gibt zwar keinen Aufschluss über die Anwesenheit eines Volllängen Provirus, jedoch ist aufgrund dieser Verteilung gleichfalls ein Ausschluss dieses Virus durch herkömmliche Züchtung möglich. Auf der anderen Seite besteht ein weiteres Risiko nach einer Xenotransplantation, wenn ein infektiöses PERV durch Komplementation gebildet wird, welches als Erbinformation ein env-deletiertes Provirus trägt. Das komplementierte PERV könnte potentiell, nach erfolgter Xenotransplantation, menschliche Zellen infizieren. Daraufhin wäre es zwar nicht mehr in der Lage infektiöse Partikel zu bilden, jedoch besteht noch das Risiko einer Retrotransposition, welche an sich schon mutagen wirkt. Zusätzlich könnten durch diesen Vorgang Gene zerstört oder Onkogene angeschaltet werden. Um dieses Risiko abschätzen zu können, wurden im Rahmen dieser Arbeit modifizierte Proviren von PERV-B(33) und MoMLV (Positivkontrolle) hergestellt und in einem Retrotranspositions Assay getestet. Die Modifikation der Proviren beinhaltete die Deletion des für die Retrotransposition nicht notwendigen env-Leserahmens, im Austausch gegen eine inserierte Indikatorkassette für die Retrotransposition (neoint). Im Rahmen der in dieser Arbeit durchgeführten Experimente konnte im Fall des Molekularklons PERV-B(33) eine Frequenz der Retrotransposition von maximal 1,2*10-6 pro Zelle und Generation ermittelt werden. Demzufolge stellt eine Retrotransposition von env-deletierten proviralen porzinen Sequenzen nach erfolgter Xenotransplantation ein minimales Risiko dar.
Disruption of the complex gastrointestinal ecosystem between the resident microflora and the colonic epithelial cells has been associated with increased inflammation and altered cell growth. Possible endpoints of this disturbance are IBD and CRC. The data presented in this thesis, entitled "PPARgamma as molecular target of epithelial functions in the gastrointestinal tract", shed further light on the underlying molecular mechanisms contributing to the well ordered homeostasis of this gastrointestinal ecosystem. Except for elucidating important roles for mesalazine and the dietary HDAC inhibitors butyrate and SFN in a) the modulation of cellular growth, b) the induction of APs, and c) the control of NFkappaB signalling in CRC cells, the involvement of the nuclear hormone receptors PPARgamma und VDR as "gatekeepers" in these intricate regulatory mechanisms were established. Future work will be engaged in analysing whether these in vitro findings are also physiologically relevant in regard to prevention and therapy of gastrointestinal diseases. Within the scope of this work, in Paper I and II it could be demonstrated that butyrate and mesalazine act via PPARgamma to induce their anti-proliferative and pro-apoptotic actions along the caspase signalling pathway. Activation of the intrinsic and extrinsic signalling trail and the down-regulation of anti-apoptotic proteins are responsible for increased caspase-3 activity caused by butyrate. In contrast, mesalazine merely activates this cascade via the extrinsic trail and the IAPs. Moreover, a signal transduction pathway leading to increased cell death via p38 MAPK - PPARgamma - caspase-3 in response to butyrate was unveiled. In addition, there is strong evidence that mesalazine-mediated pro-apoptotic and growth-inhibitory abilities are controlled by PPARgamma-dependent and -independent mechanisms which appear to be triggered at least in part by the modulation of the tumor suppressor gene PTEN and the oncoprotein c-myc, respectively. In Paper III and IV the induction of the APs HBD-2 and LL-37 in response to the dietary HDAC inhibitors butyrate and SFN was pinpointed. Regarding the molecular events of this regulation, the data presented in this thesis provide strong evidence for the involvement of VDR in HBD-2- and LL-37-induced gene expression, while the participation of PPARgamma was excluded. Moreover, the role for p38 MAPK and TGF-beta1 in the up-regulation of LL-37 caused by butyrate was established. In contrast, SFN-mediated induction of HBD-2 is modulated via ERK1/2 signalling. The findings in Paper V clearly refer to the involvement of the nuclear hormone receptors PPARgamma and VDR in butyrate-mediated suppression of inducible NFkappaB activation dependent on the stimulated signalling pathway caused by LPS or TNFalpha. Moreover, an inhibitory role for VDR in the regulation of basal NFkappaB activation was revealed. On the contrary, a modulating role for PPARgamma on basal NFkappaB could be debarred. Altogether the data presented in this thesis not only provide new insights in the understanding of the fundamental gastrointestinal physiology regulated by nuclear hormone receptors, but also may offer opportunities for the development of potential drug targets and therapeutic strategies in the treatment of IBD and CRC.
Extrazelluläre Ablagerungen aus aggregierten Abeta-Peptiden stellen das pathologische Hauptmerkmal der Alzheimer Demenz dar. Schrittweise Veränderungen der Gleichgewichtsspiegel an Abeta im Gehirn begründen den Beginn der Amyloid Kaskaden Hypothese, in deren Folge es zu einer vermehrten Bildung und Aggregation von Abeta kommt. Im Zuge dieser Arbeit wurde im Zellmodell untersucht, welche Faktoren die Aggregation und die Bildung von Abeta initiieren bzw. verstärken. Etliche Arbeiten deuten darauf hin, dass der Amyloid-Metabolismus eng mit dem zellulären Cholesteringehalt verknüpft ist. In den hier verwendeten Modellsystemen bestätigte sich dieser Befund, da die Reduktion von Cholesterin durch Lovastatin und selektive Inhibitoren der Cholesterinbiosynthese mit einer signifikanten Abnahme der Abeta-Produktion einherging. Der Statin-Effekt konnte dabei nachweislich auf die Cholesterinreduktion bezogen und gegenüber pleitropen Isoprenoid-Effekten abgegrenzt werden, da die Inhibition der Isoprenoid- Transferasen FTase und GGTase zu keiner verminderten Abeta-Sekretion führte. Für eine mechanistische Analyse wurde die Rolle des freien Cholesterins als determinierender Faktor der Membranfluidität untersucht. Die APP-Prozessierung ist in der Membran lokalisiert und unterliegt daher dem Einfluss von Cholesterin als Modulator der physikalisch-chemischen Membraneigenschaften. Die Reduktion von Cholesterin bewirkt eine Zunahme der Membranfluidität, während hohe Cholesterinspiegel zu einer starren Membran führen. Beide Zustände wurden unabhängig vom Cholesteringehalt durch den Membranfluidizer Benzyl-Alkohol und den Membranrigidizer Pluronic F68 simuliert. Die Zunahme der Membranfluidität nach der Behandlung mit Benzyl Alkohol resultierte in einer signifikant verminderten Abeta-Sekretion. Pluronic F68 hingegen führte cholesterinunabhängig zu einer Abnahme an Membranfluidität, die mit einer verstärkten amyloidogenen APP-Prozessierung einherging. Die Befunde weisen die Membranfluidität explizit als regulatorisches Element der Abeta-Produktion aus. Benzyl Alkohol und Pluronic F68 zeigten außerdem eine starke Beeinflussung der Membranorganisation in Bezug auf die Formation von Lipid Rafts als potentielle Domänen der amyloidogenen APP-Prozessierung. Benzyl Alkohol führte zu einer diffusen Lokalisation von GM-1 und Cholesterin, während Pluronic F68 eine Kondensation der Raftlipide bewirkte. Abeta selbst interagiert mit der Plasmamembran und stört deren Integrität. Eine Reihe von Daten deutet darauf hin, dass Abeta spezifisch an Komponenten der Lipid Rafts bindet. Die vorliegende Arbeit bestätigt die Kolokalisation von GM-1 und Abeta und belegt, dass die Interaktion zu einer Abnahme der Membranfluidität führt. Weiterführend konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Bindung von Abeta zu einer verstärkten amyloidogenen APP-Prozessierung führt und so einen selbstverstärkenden Mechanismus der Abeta-Produktion initiiert. Der Effekt konnte in proliferierenden Zellen durch langfristige Inhibition der Abeta-Sekretion rückgängig gemacht werden. Anhand der Ergebnisse wurde ein Modell entworfen, in dem die Aggregation von gebundenem Abeta zu einer Vernetzung von Lipid Rafts führt und so die amyloidogene APP-Prozessierung stimuliert. Die Hypothese wurde mit Hilfe von Antikörperinduzierter Quervernetzung von GM-1 überprüft und bestätigt. Zusammengenommen zeigt die vorliegende Arbeit, dass 1.) die Lovastatin-induzierte Abnahme der Abeta-Sekretion in den verwendeten Zellmodellen auf die Reduktion von Cholesterin, bzw. die daraus resultierende Zunahme der Membranfluidität zurückzuführen ist, 2.) die Membranfluidität unabhängig vom Cholesteringehalt Einfluss auf die APP-Prozessierung nimmt, wobei eine fluide Membran die nicht-amyloidogene und eine starre Membran die amyloidogene APP-Prozessierung begünstigt, 3.) die Vernetzung bzw. Kondensation von Lipid Rafts zu einer verstärkten amyloidogenen Prozessierung führt und 4.) Abeta selbst durch Bindung an die Membran diesen Zustand bedingt und damit einen Teufelskreislauf initiiert, in dem es die eigene Produktion stimuliert. Damit fügt die Arbeit dem Puzzle um die Genesis der sporadischen Form der Alzheimer Demenz einige Stücke hinzu und bietet neue Aspekte für die therapeutische Intervention der Erkrankung an.