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1999, 12
The globalisation of contemporary capitalism is bringing about at least two important implications for the emergence and significance of business services. First, the social division of labour steadily increases (ILLERIS 1996). Within the complex organisation of production and trade new intermediate actors emerge either from the externalisation of existing functions in the course of corporate restructuring policies or from the fragmentation of the production chain into newly defined functions. Second, competitive advantages of firms increasingly rest on their ability to innovate and learn. As global communication erodes knowledge advantages more quickly, product life cycles shorten and permanent organisational learning results to be crucial for the creation and maintenance of competitiveness. Intra- and interorganisational relations of firms now are the key assets for learning and reflexivity (STORPER 1997). These two aspects of globalisation help understand why management consulting - as only one among other knowledge intensive business services (KIBS) - has been experiencing such a boost throughout the last two decades. Throughout the last ten years, the business has grown annually by 10% on average in Europe. Management consulting can be seen first, as a new organisational intermediate and second, as an agent of change and reflexivity to business organisations. Although the KIBS industry may not take a great share of the national GDP its impact on national economies should not be underestimated. Estimations show that today up to 80% of the value added to industrial products stem from business services (ILLERIS 1996). Economic geographers have been paying more attention to KIBS since the late 1970s and focus on the transformation of the spatial economy through the emerging business services. This market survey is conceived as a first step of a research programme on the internationalisation of management consulting and as a contribution to the lively debate in economic geography. The management consulting industry is unlimited in many ways: There are only scarce institutional boundaries, low barriers to entry, a very heterogeneous supply structure and multiple forms of transaction. Official statistics have not yet provided devices of grasping this market and it may be therefore, that research and literature on this business are rather poor. The following survey is an attempt to selectively compile existing material, empirical studies and statistics in order to draw a sketchy picture of the European market, its institutional constraints, agents and dynamics. German examples will be employed to pursue arguments in more depth.
2001, 07
Das Investmentsparen erfreut sich zunehmender Beliebtheit. Es handelt sich dabei um eine Anlageform, bei der Sparer mit geringem Kapitaleinsatz die gleichen Vorteile und Chancen erlangen können, wie sie in der Regel sonst nur bei größerem Kapitaleinsatz möglich sind. So wird beim Investmentsparen durch viele kleinere Anlagebeträge eine größere Kapitalsumme erzielt. Bei den offenen Immobilienfonds handelt es sich um die Realisierung dieser Investmentidee im Immobilienbereich. Die offenen Immobilienfonds verzeichnen insbesondere seit den 90er Jahren immense Mittelzuflüsse. Das Anlageprinzip der offenen Immobilienfonds basiert auf dem Prinzip der Risikostreuung: Neben der gesetzlichen Erfordernis, das Risiko über eine Vielzahl von Objekten zu streuen, verfügen die Fonds über verschiedene Möglichkeiten der Risikostreuung wie die Streuung nach Standorten und Nutzungen sowie nach Objektalter, -größe und -volumen. Im vorliegenden Bericht wird das Anlageverhalten der größten fünf offenen Immobilienfonds untersucht, die zusammen über einen Marktanteil von ca. 70 % verfügen (Stand: 1999). Zu diesem Zweck wurde eine Datenbank angelegt, in welche die Daten sämtlicher im Fondsvermögen gehaltenen Objekte eingegeben wurden. Zu Beginn dieser Arbeit stehen die Vermutungen, dass die Fonds überwiegend Objekte in Verdichtungsräumen und dort insbesondere in den Großstädten halten und dass die Gebäudenutzungen überwiegend tertiärwirtschaftlicher Natur sind. Aus den Rechenschaftsberichten der offenen Immobilienfonds, auf denen der empirische Teil basiert, geht lediglich der Aspekt der Risikostreuung hervor; es gibt weder Angaben zu den Verkehrswerten einzelner Objekte noch zu deren Mietpreisen. Als Bezugsgröße für die Auswertung können somit lediglich die Anzahl der Objekte und die Nutzfläche (in m²) herangezogen werden. An dieser Stelle muss auf die relativ hohe Intransparenz des deutschen Immobilienmarktes hingewiesen werden. Obwohl in den letzten Jahren einige Indizes von verschiedenen Institutionen aufgelegt wurden, ist der Markt weiterhin recht unübersichtlich. 1998 wurde der DIX, der Deutsche Immobilien-Index, als Gegenstück zum DAX (Deutscher Aktienindex) von der Deutschen Immobiliendatenbank (DID) in Wiesbaden aufgelegt. Hier werden Daten von Bestandsgrundstücken gesammelt und zusammengefasst. Die fünf untersuchten Fonds steuern zwar regelmäßig ihre Daten bei, jedoch besteht hier eine Geheimhaltungspflicht, so dass auf diesem Weg keine zusätzlichen Informationen bezogen werden können. Diese Arbeit stellt einen Beitrag zu der in der Geographie bislang kaum beachteten, aber bedeutsamen und raumprägenden Immobilienbranche dar. Während andere 2 Disziplinen wie vor allem die Wirtschaftswissenschaften den Immobilienbereich schon lange für sich entdeckt haben, hat sich die Geographie bisher wenig damit beschäftigt.
2001, 06
Over the past decade, a variety of studies have shown that other sectors in addition to high technology industries can provide a basis for regional growth and income and employment opportunities. In addition, design-intensive, craft-based, creative industries which operate in frequently changing, fashion-oriented markets have established regional concentrations. Such industries focus on the production of products and services with a particular cultural and social content and frequently integrate new information technologies into their operations and outputs. Among these industries, the media and, more recently, multimedia industries have received particular atte ntion (Brail/ Gertler 1999; Egan/ Saxenian 1999). Especially, the film (motion picture) and TV industries have been the focus of a number of studies (e.g. Storper/ Christopherson 1987; Scott 1996). For the purpose of this paper, cultural products industries are defined as those industries which are involved in the commodification of culture, especially those operations that depend for their success on the commercialization of objects and services that transmit social and cultural messages (Scott 1996, p. 306). Empirical studies on the size, structure and organizational attributes of the firms in media-related industry clusters have revealed a number of common characteristics (Scott 1996; Brail/ Gertler 1999; Egan/ Saxenian 1999). Most firms in these industries are fairly young, often existing for only a few years. They also tend to be small in terms of employment. Often, regional clusters of specialized industries are the product of a local growth process which has been driven by innovative local start-ups. In their early stages, many firms have been established by teams of persons rather than by individual entrepreneurs and have heavily relied on owner capital. Another important feature which distinguishes these industries from others is that they concentrate in inner-city instead of suburban locations (Storper/ Christopherson 1987; Eberts/ Norcliffe 1998; Brail/ Gertler 1999). In this study, I provide evidence that the Leipzig media industry shows similar tendencies and characteristics as those displayed by the multimedia and cultural products industry clusters in Los Angeles, San Francisco and Toronto, albeit at a much smaller scale. Cultural products industries are characterized by a strong tendency towards the formation of regional clusters despite the fact that in some sectors, such as the multimedia industry, technological opportunities (i.e. internet technologies) have seemingly reduced the necessity of proximity in operations between interlinked firms. In fact, it seems that regional concentration tendencies are even more dominant in cultural products industries than in many industries of the old economy . Cultural products industries have formed particular regional clusters of suppliers, producers and customers which are interlinked within the same commodity chains (Scott 1996; Les- 2 lie/ Reimer 1999). These clusters are characterized by a deep social division of labor between vertically-linked firms and patterns of interaction and cooperation in production and innovation. Within close networks of social relations and reflexive collective action, they have developed a strong tendency towards product- and process-related specialization (Storper 1997; Maskell/ Malmberg 1999; Porter 2000). In the context of the rise of a new media industry cluster in Leipzig, Germany, I discuss those approaches in the next section of this paper which provide an understanding of complex industrial clustering processes. Therein socio-institutional settings, inter-firm communication and interactive learning play a decisive role in generating regional innovation and growth. However, I will also emphasize that interfirm networks can have a negative impact on competitiveness if social relations and linkages are too close, too exclusive and too rigid. Leipzig's historical role as a location of media-related businesses will be presented in section 3. As part of this, I will argue the need to view the present cluster of media firms as an independent phenomenon which is not a mere continuation of tradition. In section 4 the start-up and location processes are analyzed which have contributed to the rise of a new media industry cluster in Leipzig during the 1990's. Related to this, section 5 will discuss the role and variety of institutions which have developed in Leipzig and how they support specialization processes. This will be interpreted as a process of reembedding into a local context. In section 6, I will discuss how media firms have become over-embedded due to their strong orientation towards regional markets. This will be followed by some brief conclusions regarding the growth potential of the Leipzig media industry.
2000, 12
There are few changes in the history of human existence comparable to urbanization in scope and potential to bring about biologic change. The transition in the developed world from an agricultural to an industrial-urban society has already produced substantial changes in human health, morphology and growth (Schell, Smith and Bilsborough, 1993, p.1). By the year 2000, about 50% of the world s total population will be living crowded in urban areas and soon thereafter, by the year 2025 as the global urban population reaches the 5 billion mark more of the world s population will be living in urban areas. This has enormous health consequences. By the close of the twenty-first century, more people will be packed into the urban areas of the developing world than are alive on the planet today (UNCHS (Habitat), 1996, p.xxi). Africa presents a particularly poignant example of the problems involved, as it has the fastest population and urban growth in the world as well as the lowest economic development and growth and many of the poorest countries, especially in Tropical Africa. Thus it exemplifies in stark reality many of the worst difficulties of urban health and ecology (Clarke, 1993, p.260). This essay is therefore concerned to analyse the trends of urbanization in Africa. This is followed by an overview of the environmental conditions of Africa s towns and cities. The subsequent section explores the links between the urban environment and health. Although the focus is with physical hazards it is important to note that the social milieu is also vital in the reproduction of health. The paper concludes by providing some policy recommendations.