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Deferred imitations assess declarative memory in infants. Many cross-sectional and a few longitudinal studies revealed that, with development, infants learn faster,and retain more target actions over longer retention intervals. Longitudinal stabilities are modest and increase through the second year. To date, there are only few multivariate deferred imitation studies pointing to interactions between declarative memory, language and self-development. However, as these studies applied variable-centered data analysis approaches, the individual stance was not taken into account.Therefore, the present dissertation focuses on the explanation of inter-individual differences of deferred imitation through the second year. In the multivariate, longitudinal Frankfurt Memory Study (FRAMES), declarative memory (deferred imitation), non-declarative memory (train task), as well as cognitive, language, motor, social, emotional and body self-awareness development (Developmental Test for 6-month- to 6-year-olds, ET6-6) were assessed on three measurement occasions (12-, 18- and 24-month-olds). From a psychometric perspective, sound tests for the assessment of deferred imitation in the respective age groups were developed (Paper 1 & 2). Reliability analyses (Paper 3) indicated relatively high short-term-stability for the deferred imitation test (12-month-olds). The co-development of declarative and nondeclarative memory in 12- and 18-month-olds provided evidence for discriminative validity (Paper 4). Longitudinally, deferred imitation performance tremendously increased throughout the second year, and performance was moderately stable between 12 and 18 months and stability increased between 18 and 24 months. Using a person-centered analysis approach (relative difference scores; cluster analysis), developmental subgroups were extracted out of the total sample. These groups differed in terms of mean growth and stability. However, between the first and second measurement occasion, the groups did not differ with respect to motor, cognitive and language development (Paper 5). Using the data of three measurement occasions, subgroups were extracted showing significant differences with respect to language, motor and body self-awareness development (Paper 6). The results are discussed against the background of infancy development theories.
In natural environments, background noise can degrade the integrity of acoustic signals, posing a problem for animals that rely on their vocalizations for communication and navigation. A simple behavioral strategy to combat acoustic interference would be to restrict call emissions to periods of low-amplitude or no noise. Using audio playback and computational tools for the automated detection of over 2.5 million vocalizations from groups of freely vocalizing bats, we show that bats (Carollia perspicillata) can dynamically adapt the timing of their calls to avoid acoustic jamming in both predictably and unpredictably patterned noise. This study demonstrates that bats spontaneously seek out temporal windows of opportunity for vocalizing in acoustically crowded environments, providing a mechanism for efficient echolocation and communication in cluttered acoustic landscapes.
Visual working memory (VWM) is reliably predictive of fluid intelligence and academic achievements. The objective of the current study was to investigate individual differences in pre-schoolers’ VWM processing by examining the association between behaviour, brain function and parent-reported measures related to the child's environment. We used a portable functional near-infrared spectroscopy system to record from the frontal and parietal cortices of 4.5-year-old children (N = 74) as they completed a colour change-detection VWM task in their homes. Parents were asked to fill in questionnaires on temperament, academic aspirations, home environment and life stress. Children were median-split into a low-performing (LP) and a high-performing (HP) group based on the number of items they could successfully remember during the task. LPs increasingly activated channels in the left frontal and bilateral parietal cortices with increasing load, whereas HPs showed no difference in activation. Our findings suggest that LPs recruited more neural resources than HPs when their VWM capacity was challenged. We employed mediation analyses to examine the association between the difference in activation between the highest and lowest loads and variables from the questionnaires. The difference in activation between loads in the left parietal cortex partially mediated the association between parent-reported stressful life events and VWM performance. Critically, our findings show that the association between VWM capacity, left parietal activation and indicators of life stress is important to understand the nature of individual differences in VWM in pre-school children.
This dissertation discusses the mutual influence between leaders and followers on perception, emotion and behavior, using an attachment theory perspective. Some individuals are more likely to be seen as leaders than others. On the one hand this is determined by the characteristics or attributes as well as skills of the person in question. However, on the other hand, followers’ perception and expectations play a big role as well, in particular which expectations of an ideal leader can be fulfilled by followers’ current leader. Although attachment theory and – styles have only recently entered the organizational psychology literature, this dissertation advances that literature by looking at the role of attachment orientations between leaders and followers. In doing so, this dissertation answers several recent research calls on this topic. The three main subsequent chapters discuss the predictive role of attachment orientations with regard to leader preferences, the transference of behavioural expectations from one leader to another, and the perception of leader prototypicality in groups. The first chapter discusses the connection between implicit leader preferences and attachment orientations as predictors. Results show that avoidant attached individuals prefer a more autonomous and independent leadership style, whereas anxious attached individuals prefer a supportive and team-oriented leadership style. In the second chapter I study the transference of behavioural expectations from one leader to another. Results show that avoidant attached individuals are more likely to engage in this transference process. In addition, I discuss and empirically test the influence of culture with regard to leader transference. In the final chapter, I examine the behavioural influence of attachment orientations on how likely someone is perceived to be a leader in groups. Based on 57 project groups, I find that team members actually perceive avoidant attached individuals to be the most leader-like. Put differently, given certain environmental conditions, insecure attachment orientations can be perceived as leaders. These results show that it is even more important that leaders somewhat adapt to their followers’ preferences and not commit to merely one particular leadership style.
Die Arbeit befasst sich mit der Zusammenhangsstruktur einer Vielzahl von Aufmerksamkeitskomponenten, welche aus deutlich unterscheidbaren theoretischen Perspektiven postuliert werden. Untersucht wird insbesondere die Frage, inwieweit zu den auf konzeptueller Ebene differenzierten Aufmerksamkeitskomponenten entsprechende kognitive Fähigkeiten empirisch separiert und in ein gemeinsames, theorienübergreifendes Aufmerksamkeitsmodell integriert werden können. Zunächst wurde unter Fragestellung 1 untersucht, ob fünf häufig postulierte Aufmerksamkeitskomponenten in der Tradition Posners (s. Posner & Boies, 1971; Posner & Rafal, 1987), Alertness, räumliche Aufmerksamkeit, fokussierte Aufmerksamkeit, Aufmerksamkeitswechsel und geteilte Aufmerksamkeit, empirisch unterscheidbare kognitive Fähigkeiten darstellen. Im Anschluss daran wurde unter Fragestellung 2 analysiert, welchen Beitrag die Aufmerksamkeitskomponenten in der Tradition Posners zur Erklärung konzeptuell unterscheidbarer Aufmerksamkeitskomponenten aus Sicht der Handlungstheorie (Neumann, 1992), aus der Arbeitsgedächtnisperspektive (Baddeley, 1986) sowie aus Sicht der psychometrischen Konzentrationsforschung (z.B. Brickenkamp, 1994; Moosbrugger & Goldhammer, 2006) leisten. Unter Fragestellung 3 wurde eine faktorenanalytische Integration aller einbezogenen Aufmerksamkeitskomponenten in ein theorienübergreifendes, integratives Aufmerksamkeitsmodell vorgenommen. In Anlehnung an Theorien, welche Aufmerksamkeit sowohl auf perzeptive Prozesse als auch auf die exekutive Kontrolle bei der Bearbeitung komplexer Aufgaben beziehen (Bundesen, 1990; Logan & Gordon, 2001), wurden zwei Basisdimensionen bzw. grundlegende Aufmerksamkeitsfaktoren vermutet, nämlich perceptual attention und executive attention, welche interindividuelle Fähigkeitsunterschiede über die verschiedenen Aufmerksamkeitskomponenten hinweg erklären. Schließlich wurde unter Fragestellung 4 auf theoretischer wie auch auf empirischer Ebene untersucht, inwieweit sich Konzentration in den Erklärungsrahmen mehrdimensionaler Aufmerksamkeitsmodelle eingliedern lässt, indem eine konzeptuelle sowie statistische Rückführung von Konzentration auf mehrdimensionale Aufmerksamkeit vorgenommen wurde. An einer Stichprobe von 232 Studierenden wurde die Leistung in 13 Aufmerksamkeits- und Konzentrationstests erfasst. Konfirmatorische Faktorenanalysen zeigten, dass die fünf Aufmerksamkeitskomponenten in der Tradition Posners miteinander in Beziehung stehen, jedoch klar separierbar sind. Aus den getesteten Strukturgleichungsmodellen ging hervor, dass diese Aufmerksamkeitskomponenten signifikant und in unterschiedlicher Weise zur Erklärung von konzeptuell unterscheidbaren Aufmerksamkeitskomponenten beitragen. In hypothesenkonformer Weise erwiesen sich Aufmerksamkeitswechsel und geteilte Aufmerksamkeit als bedeutsam für die Erklärung von Konzentration sowie von handlungsorientierten Aufmerksamkeitskomponenten. Hinsichtlich des integrativen Aufmerksamkeitsmodells konnte die vermutete 2-Faktorenstruktur, welche einen Generalfaktor perceptual attention sowie einen spezifischen Faktor executive attention enthält, bestätigt werden. Das vielfach von Aufmerksamkeit getrennt behandelte Konzentrationskonstrukt konnte auf theoretischer Ebene durch Aufzeigen konzeptueller Entsprechungen in den Erklärungsrahmen mehrdimensionaler Aufmerksamkeit eingegliedert werden. In konsistenter Weise ließ sich Konzentration auf empirischer Ebene durch Aufmerksamkeitskomponenten nach Posner sowie die beiden Faktoren des postulierten integrativen Aufmerksamkeitsmodells substanziell erklären.