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Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Dissertation sollte der Sphingolipid-Biosyntheseweg der Hefe Pichia ciferrii näher charakterisiert werden, um die Entwicklung einer fermentativen Route zur Sphingosin-Produktion zu ermöglichen. Darüber hinaus galt es patentierbare Selektionssysteme für diese Hefe zu etablieren. Durch Sequenzvergleiche mit nahe verwandten Hefen und das Ableiten degenerierter Primer wurden elf für die Sphingolipid-Biosynthese von Pichia ciferrii relevante Gene isoliert und sequenziert: LCB1 (codiert für eine UE der Serin-Palmitoyltransferase), TSC10 (3-Ketosphinganin-Reduktase), LAG1 und LAF1 (Ceramid-Synthasen), LIP1 (UE der Ceramid-Synthasen), DES1 (Dihydroceramid-delta4-Desaturase), YXC1 (Ceramidase), 8DES (Sphingolipid-delta8-Desaturase), 9MTR (Sphingolipid-C9-Methyltransferase), GCS1 (Ceramid-Glycosyltransferase) und LCB4 (LCB-Kinase). Bioinformatische Analysen, sowie in vivo-Experimente dienten der Einordnung der korrespondierenden Genprodukte in den Stoffwechselweg. Die Bestimmung der Substratspezifität einzelner Enzyme aus der Sphingolipid-Biosynthese erfolgte durch Überexpression der korrespondierenden Gene und anschließende Analyse des Einflusses auf die Zusammensetzung der Sphingolipidfraktion von Pichia ciferrii. Zusammengenommen wurde durch die Ergebnisse ein deutlich geschärftes Bild der Biosynthese von Sphingolipiden in Pichia ciferrii erstellt. Die gewonnenen Erkenntnisse über die Sphingolipid-Biosynthese in Pichia ciferrii fanden Anwendung auf die rationale Stammentwicklung eines Sphingosin-Produzenten. Durch die kombinierte Überexpression der die Dihydroceramid-delta4-Desaturase aus Pichia ciferrii, die Ceramid-Synthase aus Coccolithovirus und eine alkalische Ceramidase aus Mus musculus kodierenden Gene wurde eine 8,5-fache Erhöhung der Sphingosin-Konzentration von 7,5 mg/L in vom Wildtyp abgeleiteten Syringomycin-E-resistenten Stämmen auf 64,0 mg/L erzielt. Die Codon-Optimierung der heterolog exprimierten Gene zur Anpassung an die sehr eingeschränkte Codon-Verwendung von Pichia ciferrii erwies sich hierbei als essentiell. Zur Nutzbarmachung von rekombinanten Pichia ciferrii-Stämmen für die industrielle Anwendung wurden darüber hinaus drei neue Selektionssysteme etabliert. Zum einen wurde eine codon-optimierte Form des nat1-Gens genutzt, um eine Nourseothricin-Resistenz zu vermitteln. Zum anderen wurden stabile Uracil- bzw. Lysin-auxotrophe Pichia ciferrii-Stämme erzeugt, die mittels eines entsprechenden Integrationsvektors mit den Auxotrophie-Markergenen URA3 bzw. LYS2 aus Pichia ciferrii zu prototrophen Stämmen komplementiert werden konnten. Zusammengenommen mit der ersten gezielten Disruption eines Gens in Pichia ciferrii (SYR2, codiert für die Sphinganin-Hydroxylase) konnte somit auch die molekularbiologische Handhabbarkeit von Pichia ciferrii deutlich verbessert werden.
Highlights
• Cryo-EM structure of a yeast F1Fo-ATP synthase dimer
• Inhibitor-free X-ray structure of the F1 head and rotor complex
• Mechanism of ATP generation by rotary catalysis
• Structural basis of cristae formation in the inner mitochondrial membrane
Summary
We determined the structure of a complete, dimeric F1Fo-ATP synthase from yeast Yarrowia lipolytica mitochondria by a combination of cryo-EM and X-ray crystallography. The final structure resolves 58 of the 60 dimer subunits. Horizontal helices of subunit a in Fo wrap around the c-ring rotor, and a total of six vertical helices assigned to subunits a, b, f, i, and 8 span the membrane. Subunit 8 (A6L in human) is an evolutionary derivative of the bacterial b subunit. On the lumenal membrane surface, subunit f establishes direct contact between the two monomers. Comparison with a cryo-EM map of the F1Fo monomer identifies subunits e and g at the lateral dimer interface. They do not form dimer contacts but enable dimer formation by inducing.
The yeast Rcf1 protein is a member of the conserved family of proteins termed the hypoxia-induced gene (domain) 1 (Hig1 or HIGD1) family. Rcf1 interacts with components of the mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation system, in particular the cytochrome bc1 (complex III)-cytochrome c oxidase (complex IV) supercomplex (termed III-IV) and the ADP/ATP carrier proteins. Rcf1 plays a role in the assembly and modulation of the activity of complex IV; however, the molecular basis for how Rcf1 influences the activity of complex IV is currently unknown. Hig1 type 2 isoforms, which include the Rcf1 protein, are characterized in part by the presence of a conserved motif, (Q/I)X3(R/H)XRX3Q, termed here the QRRQ motif. We show that mutation of conserved residues within the Rcf1 QRRQ motif alters the interactions between Rcf1 and partner proteins and results in the destabilization of complex IV and alteration of its enzymatic properties. Our findings indicate that Rcf1 does not serve as a stoichiometric component, i.e. as a subunit of complex IV, to support its activity. Rather, we propose that Rcf1 serves to dynamically interact with complex IV during its assembly process and, in doing so, regulates a late maturation step of complex IV. We speculate that the Rcf1/Hig1 proteins play a role in the incorporation and/or remodeling of lipids, in particular cardiolipin, into complex IV and. possibly, other mitochondrial proteins such as ADP/ATP carrier proteins.
A simple and fast method of lipid analysis of isolated intact mitochondria by means of MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry is described. Mitochondria isolated from bovine heart and yeast have been employed to set up and validate the new method of lipid analysis. The mitochondrial suspension is directly applied over the target and, after drying, covered by a thin layer of the 9-aminoacridine matrix solution. The lipid profiles acquired with this procedure contain all peaks previously obtained by analyzing the lipid extracts of isolated mitochondria by TLC and/or mass spectrometry. The novel procedure allows the quick, simple, precise, and accurate analysis of membrane lipids, utilizing only a tiny amount of isolated organelle; it has also been tested with intact membranes of the bacterium Paracoccus denitrificans for its evolutionary link to present-day mitochondria. The method is of general validity for the lipid analysis of other cell fractions and isolated organelles.
Biotechnological processes offer better production conditions for a wide variety of goods of industrial interest. The production of aromatic compounds, for example, involves molecules of great value for cosmetic, plastic, agrochemical and pharmaceutic industries. However, the yield of such processes frequently prevents a proper implementtation that would allow the replacement of traditional production processes.
Numerous rational engineering approaches have been attempted to enhance metabolic pathways associated with desired products. Unfortunately, genetic modifications and heterologous pathway expression often lead to a higher metabolic burden on the producing organisms, ultimately leading to reduced production levels and fitness.
This project utilised adaptive laboratory evolution to better understand the development of synthetic cooperative consortia, using S. cerevisiae as a model organism. Specifically, a synthetic cooperative consortium was developed around the exchange of lysine and tyrosine, which was subjected to adaptive laboratory evolution aiming to induce mutations that would improve the system’s fitness either by enhanced production or upgraded stress resistance. Consequently, the mutant strains isolated after the evolution rounds were sequenced to identify relevant variations that could be related to the growth and production phenotypes observed.
The insights derived from this project are expected to contribute to further developing synthetic cooperative consortia with utilitarian purposes.