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Optimierung der Synthese eines neuen photolabil geschützten Nitroxid-Spin-Labels für RNA und DNA
(2023)
Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit konnte, ausgehend von den günstigen Ausgangsverbindungen Desoxyadenosin und Phthalsäureanhydrid, ein neues photolabil geschütztes Nukleotid 1 und sein Dummypartner 2 synthetisiert werden. Positiv zu bemerken ist, dass einige Schritte im Vergleich zu ähnlichen literaturbekannten Reaktionen in Einfachheit, Reinheit oder Ausbeute verbessert wurden. So konnte die Ausbeute der wichtigen Umwandlung des Amins 46 zum Iodid 47 durch den Ersatz des vorherigen DCM/DIM Gemisches durch reines DIM von 15 % auf akzeptable 50 % erhöht werden, was nicht nur Zeit, sondern auch zukünftige Chemikalienmengen einspart. Nicht nur hierbei, sondern auch bei der Nitrierung zu 61 oder auch der Oxidierung zu 63 war es von äußerster Wichtigkeit eine korrekte Temperaturkontrolle durchzuführen, da es sonst zu hohen Ausbeuteverlusten durch ungewollte Nebenreaktionen kommen konnte. Eine sehr interessante Beobachtung war die Kontrolle der Suzuki Miyaura-Kreuzkupplung durch die Anwendung verschieden starker Basen. Während schwache Basen wie KOAc nur zur Miyaura-Borilierung führten, begünstigten starke Basen wie K3PO4 die Suzuki Miyaura-Kreuzkupplung. Die Zusammenführung des Zucker Bausteins 36 und des Isoindolin-Bausteins 37 funktionierte sehr gut, sodass das Nukleotid 1 durch die Schützung der exozyklischen Amingruppe und Phosphorylierung des 3´-OH dargestellt werden konnte.
Die Synthese der 14mer DNA bzw. RNA Sequenzen mit den neuen Nukleotiden 1 und 2 funktionierten mit zufriedenstellenden Ausbeuten, nur die Abspaltung der Pac-Gruppe benötigte etwas harschere Bedingungen von 50 °C in 32 % Ammoniak über Nacht. Die photolabile Schutzgruppe in Strang (V) mDNA-Tetramethyl konnte nun abgespalten und das Nitroxid an Luft reoxidiert werden. Anhand von EPR-Spektren und einer HPLC Analyse ergab sich jedoch eine Abspalteffizienz von nur 70 %. Dies bedeutet, dass für künftige PELDOR Messungen eine Aufreinigung des Spaltgemisches zur Isolierung des Radikal-Strangs von Nöten ist.
Anhand des Schmelzpunkts der verschiedenen Duplexe wurde anschließend die mögliche Anwendung des Nukleotids weiter analysiert. Hierbei stellte sich heraus, dass der Benzolring sowohl in 2 als auch in 1 eine erhebliche Destabilisierung des Duplex erzeugte. Somit ist das neue photolabil geschützte Nukleotid als EPR Sonde in der Mitte von Sequenzen nur bedingt geeignet. Zukünftige Experimente könnten das neue Spin Label nicht in der Mitte, sondern an den Enden der Sequenzen ähnlich anderer Arbeiten[92,94,164] einbauen, wo die Destabilisierung eine geringere Auswirkung hat, oder die Sequenz für eine bessere Stabilisierung verlängern.[164] Bei ausreichenden Duplexstabilitäten könnten hiermit dann PELDOR Messungen durchgeführt werden. Ähnlich starre, sterisch anspruchsvolle Nukleotide zeigten auch ähnliche Schmelzpunkte für ihre Duplexe[120], dennoch wurden sie für weitere Markierungsexperimente verwendet. Hierbei handelte es sich jedoch nicht um EPR Sonden, sondern um Fluoreszenzmarker. Da auch das neue Spin-Label 1 ein großes π-System besitzt, könnte eine komplett neue Herangehensweise die Anwendung als Fluoreszenzmarker sein. Genaue Absorptionsmessungen müssten noch durchgeführt werden, jedoch zeigte das Spin Label sehr stark fluoreszierende Eigenschaften unter der UV-Lampe während der Säulenchromatographie. Hierbei würde die Synthese um einiges kürzer ausfallen, da das EPR-aktive Nitroxid nicht mehr benötigt wird und geschützt werden muss, was Zeit und Chemikalien spart.
Zusammenfassend wurde über eine 22-stufige Synthese ein neues photolabil geschütztes Spin-Label synthetisiert, in ein 14mer integriert, erfolgreich entschützt und mittels EPR-Spektroskopie vermessen. Schmelzpunktmessungen zeigten jedoch eine große Destabilisierung und deuten darauf hin, dass 1 und Nukleotide mit ähnlich Benzolringen nur eingeschränkt als EPR-aktive Nukleotide geeignet sind.
Metabolic differences between symbiont subpopulations in the deep-sea tubeworm Riftia pachyptila
(2020)
The hydrothermal vent tube worm Riftia pachyptila lives in intimate symbiosis with intracellular sulfur-oxidizing gammaproteobacteria. Although the symbiont population consists of a single 16S rRNA phylotype, bacteria in the same host animal exhibit a remarkable degree of metabolic diversity: They simultaneously utilize two carbon fixation pathways and various energy sources and electron acceptors. Whether these multiple metabolic routes are employed in the same symbiont cells, or rather in distinct symbiont subpopulations, was unclear. As Riftia symbionts vary considerably in cell size and shape, we enriched individual symbiont cell sizes by density gradient centrifugation in order to test whether symbiont cells of different sizes show different metabolic profiles. Metaproteomic analysis and statistical evaluation using clustering and random forests, supported by microscopy and flow cytometry, strongly suggest that Riftia symbiont cells of different sizes represent metabolically dissimilar stages of a physiological differentiation process: Small symbionts actively divide and may establish cellular symbiont-host interaction, as indicated by highest abundance of the cell division key protein FtsZ and highly abundant chaperones and porins in this initial phase. Large symbionts, on the other hand, apparently do not divide, but still replicate DNA, leading to DNA endoreduplication. Highest abundance of enzymes for CO2 fixation, carbon storage and biosynthesis in large symbionts indicates that in this late differentiation stage the symbiont’s metabolism is efficiently geared towards the production of organic material. We propose that this division of labor between smaller and larger symbionts benefits the productivity of the symbiosis as a whole.
Life and biological resilience rely on the execution of precise gene expression profiles. A key mechanism to ensure cellular homeostasis is the regulation of protein synthesis. Recent studies have unveiled an intrinsic regulatory capacity of ribosomes, previously considered mere executors of mRNA translation. Neurons in particular finely regulate protein synthesis, at both global and local levels. This sustains their complex morphology and allows them to rapidly transmit, integrate, and respond to external stimuli. In this thesis, I investigated the neuronal ribosome and how subcellular environments and physiological perturbations shape it, by profiling its molecular composition, functional interconnections, and cellular distribution.
First, I used genetic engineering, biochemical purification, and mass spectrometry, to characterize in an unbiased manner the translation machinery specifically from excitatory and inhibitory neurons of the mouse cortex. I found that neuronal ribosomes commonly interact with RNA-binding proteins, components of the cytoskeleton, and proteins associated with the endoplasmic reticulum and vesicles. In line with the requirement for local protein synthesis in the distal parts of neurons, we observed that neuronal ribosomes preferentially interact with proteins involved in cellular transport. Remarkably, I observed a strong association between ribosomes and pre-synaptic vesicles, which suggests a potential regulatory interaction between local translation and neuronal activity.
Intriguingly, I and others have observed mRNAs encoding for core ribosomal proteins (RPs) among the genes most enriched in neuronal processes. This observation challenges two historical assumptions of ribosome biology: (1) new RPs are incorporated only into newly forming ribosomes, and (2) this incorporation occurs only in the nucleus and perinuclear region. In my PhD, I aimed to directly test these two assumptions and if proven wrong ask whether and why neurons would localize RP mRNAs far from their known assembly site.
Employing a combination of metabolic labeling and highly sensitive mass spectrometry techniques, I discovered that a subset of RPs rapidly and dynamically binds on and off mature ribosomes. Strikingly, this incorporation does not depend on the supply of new ribosomes from the nucleus. Therefore, my data refuted the assumption that ribosomes are built and degraded as a unit and revealed a more dynamic view of these machines, which can actively exchange core components. In particular, I found that the association of certain exchanging RPs is influenced by location (e.g., cell body versus neurites) and cellular state (e.g., post-oxidative stress). Neurons may use this mechanism to repair and/or specialize their protein synthesis machinery in a rapid and context-dependent manner.
Finally, I asked whether some steps of ribosome biogenesis could also take place in distal processes. Although most steps of ribosome assembly occur within the nucleus, the final stages of maturation are known to occur in the cytosol. By combining several imaging and biochemical approaches, I found that cytosolic (but not nuclear) pre-ribosomal particles are present in neuronal processes. Through the incorporation of new RPs into these immature particles, neurons may be able to locally “turn on” previously incompetent ribosomes. This may enable regions near synapses to enhance and customize their translational capacity, independently of the central pool of ribosomes from the cell body. Indeed, I observed that synaptic plasticity induces a maturation of cytosolic pre-ribosomes.
In summary, this thesis shows how neuronal ribosomes can sense cellular states, respond by adjusting their core composition, and in doing so influence the local capacity for protein synthesis. By overturning long-held assumptions in ribosome biology, this work highlights new molecular mechanisms of gene expression and enriches our understanding of the rapid and dynamic strategies cells employ to operate, thrive, and adaptively respond to environmental changes.
Long non-coding RNAs are a very versatile class of molecules that can have important roles in regulating a cells function, including regulating other genes on the transcriptional level. One of these mechanisms is that RNA can directly interact with DNA thereby recruiting additional components such as proteins to these sites via an RNA:dsDNA triplex formation. We genetically deleted the triplex forming sequence (FendrrBox) from the lncRNA Fendrr in mice and found that this FendrrBox is partially required for Fendrr function in vivo. We found that the loss of the triplex forming site in developing lungs causes a dysregulation of gene programs associated with lung fibrosis. A set of these genes contain a triplex site directly at their promoter and are expressed in lung fibroblasts. We biophysically confirmed the formation of an RNA:dsDNA triplex with target promoters in vitro. We found that Fendrr with the Wnt signalling pathway regulates these genes, implicating that Fendrr synergizes with Wnt signalling in lung fibrosis.
All-optical closed-loop voltage clamp for precise control of muscles and neurons in live animals
(2023)
Excitable cells can be stimulated or inhibited by optogenetics. Since optogenetic actuation regimes are often static, neurons and circuits can quickly adapt, allowing perturbation, but not true control. Hence, we established an optogenetic voltage-clamp (OVC). The voltage-indicator QuasAr2 provides information for fast, closed-loop optical feedback to the bidirectional optogenetic actuator BiPOLES. Voltage-dependent fluorescence is held within tight margins, thus clamping the cell to distinct potentials. We established the OVC in muscles and neurons of Caenorhabditis elegans, and transferred it to rat hippocampal neurons in slice culture. Fluorescence signals were calibrated to electrically measured potentials, and wavelengths to currents, enabling to determine optical I/V-relationships. The OVC reports on homeostatically altered cellular physiology in mutants and on Ca2+-channel properties, and can dynamically clamp spiking in C. elegans. Combining non-invasive imaging with control capabilities of electrophysiology, the OVC facilitates high-throughput, contact-less electrophysiology in individual cells and paves the way for true optogenetic control in behaving animals.
This dissertation constitutes a series of successive research papers, starting with the characterization of various optogenetic tools up to the establishment of purely optical electrophysiology in living animals.
Optogenetics has revolutionized neurobiology as it allows stimulation of excitable cells with exceptionally high spatiotemporal resolution. To cope with the increasing complexity of research issues and accompanying demands on experimental design, the broadening of the optogenetic toolbox is indispensable. Therefore, one goal was to establish a wide variety of novel rhodopsin-based actuators and characterize them, among others, with respect to their spectral properties, kinetics, and efficacy using behavioral experiments in Caenorhabditis elegans. During these studies, the applicability of highly potent de- and hyperpolarizers with adapted spectral properties, altered ion specificity, strongly slowed off-kinetics, and inverted functionality was successfully demonstrated. Inhibitory anion channelrhodopsins (ACRs) stood out, filling the gap of long-sought equivalent hyperpolarizing tools, and could be convincingly applied in a tandem configuration combined with the red-shifted depolarizer Chrimson for bidirectional stimulation (Bidirectional Pair of Opsins for Light-induced Excitation and Silencing, BiPOLES). A parallel study aimed to compare various rhodopsin-based genetically encoded voltage indicators (GEVIs) in the worm: In addition to electrochromic FRET-based GEVIs that use lower excitation intensity, QuasAr2 was particularly convincing in terms of voltage sensitivity and photostability in C. elegans. However, classical optogenetic approaches are quite static and only allow perturbation of neural activity. Therefore, QuasAr2 and BiPOLES were combined in a closed-loop feedback control system to implement the first proof-of-concept all-optical voltage clamp to date, termed the optogenetic voltage clamp (OVC). Here, an I-controller generates feedback of light wavelengths to bidirectionally stimulate BiPOLES and keep QuasAr’s fluorescence at a desired level. The OVC was established in body wall muscles and various types of neurons in C. elegans and transferred to rat hippocampal slice culture. In the worm, it allowed to assess altered cellular physiology of mutants and Ca2+-channel characteristics as well as dynamical clamping of distinct action potentials and associated behavior.
Ultimately, the optogenetic actuators and sensors implemented in the course of this cumulative work enabled to synergistically combine the advantages of imaging- and electrode-based techniques, thus providing the basis for noninvasive, optical electrophysiology in behaving animals.
Highlights
• Cryo-EM structure of a yeast F1Fo-ATP synthase dimer
• Inhibitor-free X-ray structure of the F1 head and rotor complex
• Mechanism of ATP generation by rotary catalysis
• Structural basis of cristae formation in the inner mitochondrial membrane
Summary
We determined the structure of a complete, dimeric F1Fo-ATP synthase from yeast Yarrowia lipolytica mitochondria by a combination of cryo-EM and X-ray crystallography. The final structure resolves 58 of the 60 dimer subunits. Horizontal helices of subunit a in Fo wrap around the c-ring rotor, and a total of six vertical helices assigned to subunits a, b, f, i, and 8 span the membrane. Subunit 8 (A6L in human) is an evolutionary derivative of the bacterial b subunit. On the lumenal membrane surface, subunit f establishes direct contact between the two monomers. Comparison with a cryo-EM map of the F1Fo monomer identifies subunits e and g at the lateral dimer interface. They do not form dimer contacts but enable dimer formation by inducing.
In fungi, the mitochondrial respiratory chain complexes (complexes I–IV) are responsible for oxidative phosphorylation, as in higher eukaryotes. Cryo-EM was used to identify a 200 kDa membrane protein from Neurospora crassa in lipid nanodiscs as cytochrome c oxidase (complex IV) and its structure was determined at 5.5 Å resolution. The map closely resembles the cryo-EM structure of complex IV from Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Its ten subunits are conserved in S. cerevisiae and Bos taurus, but other transmembrane subunits are missing. The different structure of the Cox5a subunit is typical for fungal complex IV and may affect the interaction with complex III in a respiratory supercomplex. Additional density was found between the matrix domains of the Cox4 and Cox5a subunits that appears to be specific to N. crassa.
As cryo-EM approaches the physical resolution limits imposed by electron optics and radiation damage, it becomes increasingly urgent to address the issues that impede high-resolution structure determination of biological specimens. One of the persistent problems has been beam-induced movement, which occurs when the specimen is irradiated with high-energy electrons. Beam-induced movement results in image blurring and loss of high-resolution information. It is particularly severe for biological samples in unsupported thin films of vitreous water. By controlled devitrification of conventionally plunge-frozen samples, the suspended film of vitrified water was converted into cubic ice, a polycrystalline, mechanically stable solid. It is shown that compared with vitrified samples, devitrification reduces beam-induced movement in the first 5 e Å−2 of an exposure by a factor of ∼4, substantially enhancing the contribution of the initial, minimally damaged frames to a structure. A 3D apoferritin map reconstructed from the first frames of 20 000 particle images of devitrified samples resolved undamaged side chains. Devitrification of frozen-hydrated specimens helps to overcome beam-induced specimen motion in single-particle cryo-EM, as a further step towards realizing the full potential of cryo-EM for high-resolution structure determination.
CryoEM at IUCRJ: a new era
(2016)
Highlights
• Cryo-EM structures of the yeast low-affinity phosphate importer ScPho90
• Complementary structures reveal insights into the substrate translocation mechanism
• Comparisons with homologous transporters highlight the conserved transport mechanism
• Regulation by the SPX domain is discussed
Summary
Phosphate homeostasis is essential for all living organisms. Low-affinity phosphate transporters are involved in phosphate import and regulation in a range of eukaryotic organisms. We have determined the structures of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae phosphate importer Pho90 by electron cryomicroscopy in two complementary states at 2.3 and 3.1 Å resolution. The symmetrical, outward-open structure in the presence of phosphate indicates bound substrate ions in the binding pocket. In the absence of phosphate, Pho90 assumes an asymmetric structure with one monomer facing inward and one monomer facing outward, providing insights into the transport mechanism. The Pho90 transport domain binds phosphate ions on one side of the membrane, then flips to the other side where the substrate is released. Together with functional experiments, these complementary structures illustrate the transport mechanism of eukaryotic low-affinity phosphate transporters.
The translation eukaryotic elongation factor 1alpha (eEF1A) is a monomeric GTPase involved in protein synthesis. In addition, this protein is thought to participate in other cellular functions such as actin bundling, cell cycle regulation, and apoptosis. Here we show that eEF1A is associated with the alpha2 subunit of the inhibitory glycine receptor in pulldown experiments with rat brain extracts. Moreover, additional proteins involved in translation like ribosomal S6 protein and p70 ribosomal S6 protein kinase as well as ERK1/2 and calcineurin were identified in the same pulldown approaches. Glycine receptor activation in spinal cord neurons cultured for 1 week resulted in an increased phosphorylation of ribosomal S6 protein. Immunocytochemistry showed that eEF1A and ribosomal S6 protein are localized in the soma, dendrites, and at synapses of cultured hippocampal and spinal cord neurons. Consistent with our biochemical data, immunoreactivities of both proteins were partially overlapping with glycine receptor immunoreactivity in cultured spinal cord and hippocampal neurons. After 5 weeks in culture, eEF1A immunoreactivity was redistributed to the cytoskeleton in about 45% of neurons. Interestingly, the degree of redistribution could be increased at earlier stages of in vitro differentiation by inhibition of either the ERK1/2 pathway or glycine receptors and simultaneous N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor activation. Our findings suggest a functional coupling of eEF1A with both inhibitory and excitatory receptors, possibly involving the ERK-signaling pathway.
Calreticulin is a Ca2+ -binding chaperone that resides in the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum and is involved in the regulation of intracellular Ca2+ homeostasis and in the folding of newly synthesized glycoproteins. In this study, we have used site-specific mutagenesis to map amino acid residues that are critical in calreticulin function. We have focused on two cysteine residues (Cys(88) and Cys(120)), which form a disulfide bridge in the N-terminal domain of calreticulin, on a tryptophan residue located in the carbohydrate binding site (Trp(302)), and on certain residues located at the tip of the "hairpin-like" P-domain of the protein (Glu(238), Glu(239), Asp(241), Glu(243), and Trp(244)). Calreticulin mutants were expressed in crt(-/-) fibroblasts, and bradykinin-dependent Ca2+ release was measured as a marker of calreticulin function. Bradykinin-dependent Ca2+ release from the endoplasmic reticulum was rescued by wild-type calreticulin and by the Glu(238), Glu(239), Asp(241), and Glu(243) mutants. The Cys(88) and Cys(120) mutants rescued the calreticulin-deficient phenotype only partially ( approximately 40%), and the Trp(244) and Trp(302) mutants did not rescue it at all. We identified four amino acid residues (Glu(239), Asp(241), Glu(243), and Trp(244)) at the hairpin tip of the P-domain that are critical in the formation of a complex between ERp57 and calreticulin. Although the Glu(239), Asp(241), and Glu(243) mutants did not bind ERp57 efficiently, they fully restored bradykinin-dependent Ca2+ release in crt(-/-) cells. This indicates that binding of ERp57 to calreticulin may not be critical for the chaperone function of calreticulin with respect to the bradykinin receptor.
Antigen presentation to cytotoxic T lymphocytes via major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC I) molecules depends on the heterodimeric transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP). For efficient antigen supply to MHC I molecules in the ER, TAP assembles a macromolecular peptide-loading complex (PLC) by recruiting tapasin. In evolution, TAP appeared together with effector cells of adaptive immunity at the transition from jawless to jawed vertebrates and diversified further within the jawed vertebrates. Here, we compared TAP function and interaction with tapasin of a range of species within two classes of jawed vertebrates. We found that avian and mammalian TAP1 and TAP2 form heterodimeric complexes across taxa. Moreover, the extra N-terminal domain TMD0 of mammalian TAP1 and TAP2 as well as avian TAP2 recruits tapasin. Strikingly, however, only TAP1 and TAP2 from the same taxon can form a functional heterodimeric translocation complex. These data demonstrate that the dimerization interface between TAP1 and TAP2 and the tapasin docking sites for PLC assembly are conserved in evolution, whereas elements of antigen translocation diverged later in evolution and are thus taxon specific.
Nuclear pore complexes (NPCs) constitute giant channels within the nuclear envelope that mediate nucleocytoplasmic exchange. NPC diameter is thought to be regulated by nuclear envelope tension, but how such diameter changes are physiologically linked to cell differentiation, where mechanical properties of nuclei are remodeled and nuclear mechanosensing occurs, remains unstudied. Here we used cryo-electron tomography to show that NPCs dilate during differentiation of mouse embryonic stem cells into neural progenitors. In Nup133-deficient cells, which are known to display impaired neural differentiation, NPCs however fail to dilate. By analyzing the architectures of individual NPCs with template matching, we revealed that the Nup133-deficient NPCs are structurally heterogeneous and frequently disintegrate, resulting in the formation of large nuclear envelope openings. We propose that the elasticity of the NPC scaffold mechanically safeguards the nuclear envelope. Our studies provide a molecular explanation for how genetic perturbation of scaffolding components of macromolecular complexes causes tissue-specific phenotypes.
Upon infection, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1) releases its cone-shaped capsid into the cytoplasm of infected T-cells and macrophages. As its largest known cargo, the capsid enters the nuclear pore complex (NPC), driven by interactions with numerous FG-repeat nucleoporins (FG-Nups). Whether NPCs structurally adapt to capsid passage and whether capsids are modified during passage remains unknown, however. Here, we combined super-resolution and correlative microscopy with cryo electron tomography and molecular simulations to study nuclear entry of HIV-1 capsids in primary human macrophages. We found that cytosolically bound cyclophilin A is stripped off capsids entering the NPC, and the capsid hexagonal lattice remains largely intact inside and beyond the central channel. Strikingly, the NPC scaffold rings frequently crack during capsid passage, consistent with computer simulations indicating the need for NPC widening. The unique cone shape of the HIV-1 capsid facilitates its entry into NPCs and helps to crack their rings.
Virus-infected cells are eliminated by cytotoxic T lymphocytes, which recognize viral epitopes displayed on major histocompatibility complex class I molecules at the cell surface. Herpesviruses have evolved sophisticated strategies to escape this immune surveillance. During the lytic phase of EBV infection, the viral factor BNLF2a interferes with antigen processing by preventing peptide loading of major histocompatibility complex class I molecules. Here we reveal details of the inhibition mechanism of this EBV protein. We demonstrate that BNLF2a acts as a tail-anchored protein, exploiting the mammalian Asna-1/WRB (Get3/Get1) machinery for posttranslational insertion into the endoplasmic reticulum membrane, where it subsequently blocks antigen translocation by the transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP). BNLF2a binds directly to the core TAP complex arresting the ATP-binding cassette transporter in a transport-incompetent conformation. The inhibition mechanism of EBV BNLF2a is distinct and mutually exclusive of other viral TAP inhibitors.
Membrane-bound complex I (NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase) of the respiratory chain is considered the main site of mitochondrial radical formation and plays a major role in many mitochondrial pathologies. Structural information is scarce for complex I, and its molecular mechanism is not known. Recently, the 49-kDa subunit has been identified as part of the "catalytic core" conferring ubiquinone reduction by complex I. We found that the position of the 49-kDa subunit is clearly separated from the membrane part of complex I, suggesting an indirect mechanism of proton translocation. This contradicts all hypothetical mechanisms discussed in the field that link proton translocation directly to redox events and suggests an indirect mechanism of proton pumping by redox-driven conformational energy transfer.
We have isolated and characterized the cDNA encoding a Ca(2+)-dependent nucleoside diphosphatase (EC ) related to two secreted ATP- and ADP-hydrolyzing apyrases of the bloodsucking insects, Cimex lectularius and Phlebotomus papatasi. The rat brain-derived cDNA has an open reading frame of 1209 bp encoding a protein of 403 amino acids and a calculated molecular mass of 45.7 kDa. The mRNA was expressed in all tissues investigated, revealing two major transcripts with varying preponderance. The immunohistochemical analysis of the Myc-His-tagged enzyme expressed in Chinese hamster ovary cells revealed its association with the endoplasmic reticulum and also with pre-Golgi intermediates. Ca(2+)-dependent nucleoside diphosphatase is a membrane protein with its catalytic site facing the organelle lumen. It hydrolyzes nucleoside 5'-diphosphates in the order UDP >GDP = IDP >>>CDP but not ADP. Nucleoside 5'-triphosphates were hydrolyzed to a minor extent, and no hydrolysis of nucleoside 5'-monophosphates was observed. The enzyme was strongly activated by Ca(2+), insensitive to Mg(2+), and had a K(m) for UDP of 216 microm. Ca(2+)-dependent nucleoside diphosphatase may support glycosylation reactions related to quality control in the endoplasmic reticulum.
Die vorliegende Dissertation befasst sich mit der Synthese und Untersuchung funktioneller Materialien für die Modifizierung von Grenz- und Oberflächen. Einen wichtigen Einfluss auf die Bildung der untersuchten, hochgeordneten Strukturen hat das Konzept der Selbstanordnung, dessen Grundlage schwache Wechselwirkungen sind. Ihre Ausbildung erfordert das Vorliegen geeigneter, funktioneller Gruppen in den Präkursoren und damit die Nutzung der vielfältigen Möglichkeiten der chemischen Synthese zur Bereitstellung maßgeschneidert funktionalisierter Moleküle. Den fünf Projekten dieser Arbeit gemeinsam ist daher die Synthese und Untersuchung für den jeweiligen Anwendungszweck geeigneter, dipolarer Präkursor-Moleküle, die zur Ausbildung funktioneller Koordinationspolymere (CPs) bzw. Metall-organischer Gerüstverbindungen (MOFs) und selbstanordnender Monolagen (SAMs) genutzt werden können. In Zusammenarbeit mit Kooperationspartnern wurden auf dieser Grundlage Untersuchungen zur Anwendbarkeit der erhaltenen Materialien in der Sensorik und zur Oberflächenfunktionalisierung durchgeführt.
Im ersten Projekt dieser Dissertation erfolgte die Untersuchung der Bildungs- und Phasenumwandlungsreaktionen von zehn verschiedenen Kupfer-Terephthalat Koordinationspolymeren. Neben bereits bekannten Koordinationspolymeren konnten so auch drei bisher literaturunbekannte CPs hergestellt und ihre Strukturen durch Kooperationspartner gelöst bzw. Strukturvorschläge gemacht werden. Die Identifikation und Auseinandersetzung mit strukturstabilisierenden Wechselwirkungen schließen dieses Projekt ab und bilden die Grundlage für die Untersuchung der Synthese und Stabilität abgeleiteter, komplexerer Koordinationspolymere.
Im Fokus des zweiten Projekts steht 𝛽-Cu2(bdc)(OH)2, ein Kupfer-Terephthalat Koordinationspolymer, dessen Kristallstruktur zuvor nicht bekannt war, im vorliegenden Projekt aber durch Kooperationspartner auf Basis des Röntgenpulverdiffraktogramms des Materials gelöst werden konnte. Der Vergleich der analytischen Daten von 𝛽-Cu2(bdc)(OH)2 mit der Literatur zeigte gute Übereinstimmungen u. a. der Diffraktogramme und IR-Spektren mit dem in der Literatur als SURMOF-2 bezeichneten, oberflächengebundenen Schichtmaterial. Aufgrunddessen kann davon ausgegangen werden, dass es sich bei SURMOF-2 um 𝛽-Cu2(bdc)(OH)2 handelt, und folglich dessen Kristallstrukturlösung die beiden bisher in der Literatur vorhandenen Strukturvorschläge für SURMOF-2 ersetzt.
Im Rahmen des dritten Projekts sollten für die Sensorik anwendbare, MOF-basierte Dünnschichtsysteme hergestellt werden. Das Sensorkonzept, das auf der Änderung des dielektrischen Verhaltens der MOFs bei Einlagerung dipolarer Analytmoleküle beruht, erfordert den Einsatz dipolarer Liganden in den entsprechenden Koordinationsnetzwerken. Hierfür wurden mehrere teilweise dipolare pillar-Liganden synthetisiert und diese für den Aufbau von Kupfer(II)terephthalat-basierten pillared-layer MOFs eingesetzt. Im Rahmen des Projekts konnten so auf Grundlage der Erkenntnisse aus Projekt 1 und in Zusammenarbeit mit Kooperationspartnern neue pillared-layer MOFs hergestellt und ihre Kristallstrukturen gelöst werden. Die abschließend durch Kooperationspartner erfolgte Abscheidung dünner, oberflächengebundener Schichten dieser MOFs und erste Untersuchungen hinsichtlich ihrer Eignung für die geplante Sensorikanwendung runden das Projekt ab.
Im vierten Projekt sollte eine geeignete, in situ abspaltbare Schutzgruppe für die Thiolgruppe etabliert und ihr Einfluss auf die Bildung von Terphenylthiolat-SAMs untersucht werden. Diese Voraussetzung erfüllt die im Rahmen dieser Arbeit am Beispiel von CH3-, F- und CF3-terminierten Terphenylthiolen etablierte 3,4-Dimethoxybenzyl-Gruppe, die sich durch den Zusatz von Trifluoressigsäure in der Abscheidungslösung in situ abspalten lässt. Zum Vergleich wurden von Kooperationspartner Monolagen aus den entsprechenden freien Thiolen abgeschieden und untersucht. Schichtdicken, Packungsdichten, Kippwinkel und Elementarzellen von Monolagen aus freien und geschützten Terphenylthiolen zeigen gute Übereinstimmungen. Im Gegensatz zu anderen, ebenfalls in situ abspaltbaren Gruppen hat die Anwesenheit der 3,4-Dimethoxybenzyl-Gruppe folglich keinen negativen Einfluss auf die Struktur und Qualität der gebildeten Monolagen.
In Fortführung des vorangegangenen Projekts wurde im abschließenden Projekt in Zusammenarbeit mit Kooperationspartnern der Einfluss verschiedener Kopfgruppen (H-, CH3-, F-, CF3- und SF5-) und der Länge des aromatischen Rückgrats (Phenyl-, Biphenyl- und Terphenyl-) auf die Ladungstransporteigenschaften der entsprechenden SAMs untersucht. Mit Ausnahme einiger Benzolthiole, lieferten alle betrachteten Präkursoren hochgeordnete, dicht gepackte Schichten aus aufrecht angeordneten Molekülen. Wie erwartet korreliert die Austrittsarbeit der modifizierten Oberflächen mit dem Dipolmoment der jeweiligen Kopfgruppe, wobei der Effekt der SF5-Gruppe mit einer erzielten Austrittsarbeit von annähernd 6 eV besonders hervorzuheben ist. Den Erwartungen entsprechend, sinkt die elektrische Stromdichte bei gleichbleibender Kopfgruppe mit steigender Moleküllänge. Die Stromdichte ist außerdem von der Kopfgruppe abhängig und nimmt von CH3- über H-, CF3- und SF5- bis hin zu F- ab, korreliert aber folglich nicht mit der Austrittsarbeit oder dem Dipolmoment.