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The brain is characterized by its immune privileged state. However, recent studies suggest an extended contribution of hematopoietic cells to the brain. After transplantation of genetically labeled bone marrow into bone marrow depleted mice, not only labeled blood cells but also labeled neurons and other non-hematopoietic cells can be observed. Initially interpreted as transdifferentiated hematopoietic stem cells, this contribution later was identified as cell fusion of hematopoietic cells and neurons. Our lab previously addressed the question whether these fusion events also occur under non-invasive conditions. A Cre-LoxP based transgenic mouse line was used to irreversibly label all hematopoietic cells. In these mice, Cre expression is controlled by a hematopoietic promoter, thus causing recombination and subsequent marker gene expression restricted to blood cells. Interestingly, contribution of these hematopoietic cells to non-hematopoietic tissues was observed, but fusion could be excluded as the underlying mechanism. The Cre mRNA or protein seems to reach the non-hematopoietic cells from an external source. Extracellular vesicles, specifically exosomes, are increasingly recognized as a vehicle for the intercellular transfer of cellular components such as proteins or mRNAs. However, if they contribute to signaling between tissues in vivo is completely unknown and would represent a major paradigm shift for intercellular communication. Therefore, the aim of this PhD study is to investigate whether an exosomal transfer between the hematopoietic system and the brain exists. To confirm the previous results, a second Cre-LoxP mouse line that expresses the Cre recombinase under a different hematopoietic promoter is used additionally. Both mouse lines are screened for recombination and show comparable numbers and types of different non-hematopoietic cells. Besides hepatocytes and cells in lung and intestine, recombined Purkinje neurons in the cerebellum are detectable. To assess the influence of inflammation on these recombination events, different lesions such as peripheral tumors or peritonitis are applied to the mice. Inflammatory stimuli strongly increase the numbers of recombined Purkinje neurons. These neurons remain mononuclear, indicating that fusion does not occur. Also in human cerebellar material, no evidence for inflammation induced cell fusion is detectable. To screen for Cre recombinase containing exosomes, exosome purification protocols such as differential ultracentrifugation and sucrose gradient fractioning, are applied. The exosomal content is analyzed with nested PCR and western blot. Hematopoietically expressed Cre mRNA is detectable in blood plasma and hematopoietic cell culture conditioned medium. Further analysis reveals that this Cre mRNA but no Cre protein is contained in exosomes. The exosomal ability to induce recombination is investigated by injections into Cre reporter mice. After direct cerebellar injection, exosomes are sufficient to induce recombination of Purkinje neurons. Brain tissue of mice that received an inflammation is analyzed further to reveal other recombined cell types. The main immune cells of the brain, microglia, are not recombined. Mainly neuronal cell types are recombined in different areas of the brain. The observations made in this study are consistent with the hypothesis that a previously unrecognized way to communicate RNA based signals between the immune system and the brain exists. Specifically neurons are target cells for the uptake of hematopoietic exosomes and seem able to translate exosomal mRNA into functional protein. Microglial cells are neither involved as target cells, nor do they release Cre containing exosomes. By using the Cre-LoxP system, in vivo tracing of exosomes could be achieved for the first time. With this knowledge, other exosomal routes can be uncovered in future. The discovery of the exosomal transfer between the blood and the brain enables further research about the relevance of this signaling pathway. It will be important to investigate its role especially in the context of neural malfunctions and further studies might help to find new therapeutical approaches.
BMPs control postnatal dendrite growth and complexity in sympathetic neurons / von Afsaneh Majdazari
(2012)
The vertebrate nervous system is a complex network of billions of neurons connected by dendrites and axons, integrated to functional circuits and areas/organs in the central and peripheral nervous system. The cells of the nervous system origin from common progenitors, which take on different cell fates based on intrinsic and extrinsic factors. These factors determine general neuronal traits, but also the morphology and the type of connections made to other cells. Mechanisms underlying axonal and dendritic growth are well described in contrast to the initiation of neurite growth, which remains to be fully elucidated, especially concerning dendrite formation. Recently BMPs have been identified as candidate dendrite inducing factors in sympathetic, cortical and hippocampal neurons. Here we focus on the in vivo role of BMPs on dendrite growth in sympathetic neurons as their development and differentiation processes have been analyzed in detail.
Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit konnte die Bindeeigenschaft des synaptischen Vesikelproteins SV31 zu den divalenten Metallionen Zn2+, Ni2+ sowie Cu2+ nachgewiesen und reproduziert werden. Die Bindung an Zn2+ wurde dabei sowohl in vitro an der Sepharosesäule als auch in vivo in NGF-differenzierten PC12-Zellen bestätigt (3.2.1 - 3.2.3). In einer Kollaboration mit dem Max-Planck-Institut für Biophysik wurde des Weiteren eine mögliche Zinktransportfunktion von SV31 untersucht. Dafür wurde die Ladungstranslokation durch myc-SV31-enthaltene CHO-Zellmembranen nach Zinkzugabe gemessen (3.2.5). Weiterhin konnte durch subzelluläre Fraktionierung von PC12-Zellen ein Verteilungsmuster des neuen Proteins in Mikrosomen unterschiedlicher Dichte dokumentiert werden. Durch die andauernde Expression von SV31-RFP in stabil transfizierten PC12-Zellen kommt es außerdem zur Beeinflussung des Expressionsmusters zahlreicher Markerproteine und damit einhergehend zu einer Dichteverschiebung somatischer Organellen (3.3.1 - 3.3.3). Kolokalisationsstudien von SV31 mit Markerproteinen zahlreicher Zellorganellen ergaben partielle Fluoreszenzüberlagerungen mit synaptischen Vesikelproteinen sowie eine Anreicherung von SV31 in Nähe der Plasmamembran. In diesem Zusammenhang zeigt sich ebenfalls eine Übereinstimmung der Lokalisation von SV31 mit den SNAREProteinen SNAP25 und Syntaxin1A (3.4.1 - 3.4.3). Die Ergebnisse der vorliegenden Arbeit erweitern nicht nur das Wissen um die funktionellen Eigenschaften von SV31, sie geben auch Anlass zum Nachdenken über mögliche Interaktionspartner des neuen Vesikelproteins. Die Fähigkeit zur Zinkbindung und -akkumulation auf präsynaptischer Seite rückt SV31, im Hinblick auf neurodegenerative Erkrankungen wie Alzheimer und Parkinson, auch in einen medizinisch relevanten Kontext. Durch Deduktion der hier aufgezeigten Ergebnisse entsteht ein erweitertes Verständnis der Relevanz von SV31 als funktionelle, zinkbindende Einheit im Rahmen der synaptischen Transmission.
The long sought molecular function of membrane raft-associated flotillin proteins is slowly becoming resolved, partially owing to the increasing knowledge about their interaction partners. Being ubiquitously expressed and evolutionarily highly conserved, flotillins carry out important cellular functions, one of which is the regulation of signal transduction pathways. This study shows that the signaling adaptor protein fibroblast growth factor receptor substrate 2 (FRS2) directly interacts both in vivo and in vitro with flotillin-1 (flot-1). FRS2 is an important docking protein of many receptor tyrosine kinases. It regulates downstream signaling by forming molecular complexes with other adaptor proteins and tyrosine phosphatases, and seems to be a critical mediator of sustained extracellular signal regulated kinase (ERK) activity. Flot-1 has also been implicated in the regulation of ERK activity upon EGF and FGF stimuli. Furthermore, flot-1 forms signalosomes with EGFR and the downstream components of the MAP kinase pathway. The newly discovered interaction between FRS2 and flot-1 was shown to be mediated by the phosphotyrosine binding (PTB) domain and, to a lesser extent, the C-terminus (CT) of FRS2 and by the C-terminus of flot-1. Flot-1 coprecipitated together with FRS2 from murine tissues and cell lysates, demonstrating that this interaction also takes place in vivo. Interestingly, flot-2, which shows a high homology to flot-1 and forms stable oligomeric complexes with it, does not appear to directly interact with FRS2. Novel insights into the functional role of the interaction between flot-1 and FRS2 were provided by the results showing that depletion of flot-1 affects the cellular localization of FRS2. In hepatocytes stably depleted of flot-1, FRS2 appeared to be more soluble. Furthermore, upon pervanadate stimulation of the cells, a small fraction of FRS2 was recruited into detergent resistant membranes, but the recruitment did not take place in the absence of flot-1. Triggered by the same stimulus, a fraction of FRS2 was translocated to the nucleus independently of flot-1. Overexpression of FRS2 has previously been shown to result in increased ERK activation. However, in cells depleted of flot-1, FRS2 was not able to compensate for the compromised ERK activation after EGF or FGF stimulation. This might imply that FRS2 and flot-1 are functionally interconnected and that FRS2 resides upstream of flot-1. Taken together, the results presented here indicate that this complex may be involved in the control of signaling downstream of receptor tyrosine kinases and is important for ensuring a proper signaling response. In the absence of flot-1, increased Tyr phosphorylation of FRS2 was observed. It is known that Tyr and Thr phosphorylation of FRS2 are reciprocally regulated. Since ERK is a known executor of the FRS2 Thr phosphorylation, and ERK activity was shown to be severely diminished upon flot-1 depletion, the increased Tyr phosphorylation of FRS2 was in agreement with this and might be a direct consequence of a decreased ERK activity upon flot-1 depletion. FRS2 owes its name to the major and the first described function of this protein as a substrate for FGFR. PTB domain of FRS2 was published to constitutively bind the juxtamembrane domain of FGFR. In this study, the PTB domain was mapped to be involved in the constitutive interaction with flot-1 and the competition was shown to exist between flot-1 and FGFR1 for binding to FRS2. Another novel interaction partner of FRS2 was discovered in the present study. Cbl-associated protein (CAP) is an adaptor protein with three SH3 domains and it plays a role during insulin signaling by recruiting the signaling complex to lipid rafts. CAP was previously shown to interact with flot-1 via the SoHo domain, and this interaction was found to be crucial for the lipid raft recruitment of other signaling components. Both the PTB domain and CT of FRS2 were found to mediate the interaction with CAP, whereas in CAP, the SoHo domain, together with the third SH3 domain, seems to bind to FRS2. SH3 domains mediate the assembly of specific protein complexes by binding to proline rich sequences, several of which are present in FRS2. Due to overlapping interaction domains, FRS2 and flot-1 competed for the binding to CAP. However, the interaction with neither CAP nor flot-1 was necessary for the observed nuclear translocation of FRS2. Since CAP is expressed as several tissue- and developmental stage-specific isoforms, a further aim of this study was to analyze the expression of its isoforms in mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs). Many new isoforms were discovered here which have not been described in the literature so far. They all contain the SoHo domain and three SH3 domains, but differ among themselves by the presence and length of a proline-rich region that preceeds the SoHo domain and by a novel 20-amino acid (AA) stretch between the second and the third SH3 domain. The length of the proline-rich region turned out to be an important factor determining the strength of the interaction with FRS2. The interaction was found to be weakened by the increasing length of this region. The new isoforms possessing the 20-AA stretch are specifically expressed in murine muscular tissues, with the highest level in the heart. During adipogenesis, we observed a shift in the abundance of the isoforms, in that only the isoforms without the insertion were shown to be upregulated on mRNA level. However, during myogenesis, preferentially expressed isoforms were those with the insertion. The collected data implicate that isoforms with the 20-AA insertion might be more ubiquitous in nondifferentiated/embryonic cells and that the observed "isoform-switch" might be dependent on the cell fate and differentiation state.