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With increasing importance of organizational effectivity and efficiency measures like Balanced Scorecard and optimization of employee work behavior to achieve higher organizational efficiency, Human Resource activities concerning leadership development and academic leadership research are growing. Throughout the course of the twentieth century, a multitude of empirical studies show primarily positive relationships between different constructs of leadership models and desirable variables of organizational behavior. It becomes apparent, though, that in academic research the selection of analyzed leadership models and their consequences is very heterogeneous. This Master Thesis has the objective to contribute to Leadership Research by applying a comparative empirical study in the–until today–often neglected study population of in-house and sales personnel within the pharmaceutical industry. For this purpose, an online employee survey with N = 137 participants from a leading pharmaceutical company in Germany was conducted. Based on contemporary leadership theory, a range of Hypotheses regarding consequences of modern leadership models is empirically tested. The results of the study reconfirm Identification with Manager, Trust & Loyalty and Employee Satisfaction as consequences of Authentic as well as Transformational leadership. Work context as in-house vs. sales setting shows moderating effects on some of the leadership-consequences relationships. As the research involves multiple structurally different variables as well as constructs and compares feedback of different study populations, tangible management implications to boost desirable work attitudes and behaviors can be derived and appropriately adapted to match the respective work context. Ramifications for future scientific research are also presented.
Problemification: This article identifies the drivers of and solutions to the replicability crisis for psychological science and the South African Journal of Industrial Psychology (SAJIP).
Implications: The article addresses and discusses possible starting points to tackle the recent replicability crisis and convert it into a chance for psychological research and the SAJIP.
Purpose: To combine a discussion about the replicability crisis and how it could improve psychological research standards and journal policies.
Recommendations: The article provides recommendation on how to change SAJIP’s policies to increase international visibility.
Trotz vielfältiger Gleichberechtigungsbestrebungen und -erfolge in den letzten Jahrzehnten sind Frauen – in Deutschland und den meisten anderen westlichen Ländern – in den oberen Führungspositionen weniger stark vertreten als Männer (Catalyst, 2012, 2013, 2014; European Commission, 2013; Eurostat, 2013). Dieser Umstand hat in Politik, Gesellschaft und Wissenschaft Diskussionen einerseits über mögliche Ursachen und andererseits über mögliche Ansatzpunkte für Interventionen zur Stärkung der Gleichberechtigung (bspw. Einführung einer Frauenquote oder frauenspezifische Förderprogramme) angeregt. Betrachtet man die wissenschaftlichen Theorien und Studien zeigt sich, dass es verschiedene Ursachen für die Unterrepräsentanz von Frauen in Führungspositionen gibt (vgl. Hernandez Bark, Escartin, & van Dick, 2014). Anders als in der Metapher der gläsernen Decke, die davon ausgeht, dass es eine undurchlässige Decke gibt, die Frauen den Zugang zu oberen Führungspositionen verwehrt (Morrison, White, & van Velsor, 1992), stellt sich der Weg von Frauen in die oberen Führungspositionen eher als ein Labyrinth dar (vgl. Eagly & Carli, 2007). Auf dem Weg in die oberen Führungspositionen sind Frauen mit verschiedenen Hindernissen und Problemen konfrontiert, welche es für sie zu überwinden gilt (Eagly & Carli, 2007). Eine Möglichkeit, diese verschiedenen Aspekte in dem Labyrinth zu den Führungspositionen zu strukturieren, bietet die Formel von Campbell und Kollegen (Campbell, McCloy, Oppler, & Sager, 1993): Performance=KSA*Motivation*Opportunities. Hierbei steht KSA für Knowledge, Skills und Abilities, also für das Wissen, die Fähigkeiten und Fertigkeiten, ergo dem Können. Motivation steht für die Motivation, ergo dem Wollen. Und Opportunities steht für die Möglichkeiten, ergo dem Dürfen. Somit ergeben sich folgende Fragen: Können Frauen führen? Wollen Frauen führen? Und dürfen Frauen führen? In meiner Dissertation fasse ich im Rahmen eines Reviewartikels zunächst den Forschungsstand hinsichtlich dieser drei Aspekte zusammen (Hernandez Bark et al., 2014). Hierbei liegt der Fokus auf einem Vergleich zwischen Spanien und anderen westlichen Ländern wie beispielsweise der USA oder Deutschland. Anschließend fokussiere ich in dem ersten empirischen Artikel spezifischer den Aspekt des Wollens (Schuh, Hernandez Bark, Van Quaquebeke, Hossiep, Frieg, & van Dick, 2014), welcher durch das Konstrukt der Machtmotivation (McClelland, 1985) operationalisiert wurde. Hierbei untersuche ich Geschlechtsunterschiede in Machtmotivation und ihren Zusammenhang zu Führungsverantwortung. Der zweite Artikel fokussiert das Zusammenspiel des Geschlecht, des Wollens und Könnens für den Besitz von Führungsverantwortung (Hernandez Bark, Escartin & van Dick, under review). Hierbei wurde Wollen erneut durch das Konstrukt der Machtmotivation (McClelland, 1985) und das Können durch das Konstrukt der transformationalen Führung (Bass, 1985) operationalisiert. Insgesamt zeigte sich ein klares Muster: Frauen können effektiv führen und die Repräsentation von Frauen in Vorstand oder Topmanagement steht meist sowohl in einem positiven Zusammenhang mit der organisationalen Leistung als auch mit einer nachhaltigeren Unternehmenspolitik. Dieser Befund ist unabhängig vom Durchführungsland (vgl. Hernandez Bark et al., 2014). Somit lässt sich die Frage „Können Frauen führen?“ eindeutig mit ja beantworten. Eine zentrale Rolle bei der Beantwortung der Fragen „Wollen Frauen führen?“ und „Dürfen Frauen führen?“ bildet die Inkongruenz zwischen der weiblichen Geschlechtsrolle und der Führungsrolle. Während die weibliche Geschlechtsrolle Eigenschaften wie freundlich, unterstützend und warm (kommunale Eigenschaften) umfasst, beinhaltet die Führungsrolle Eigenschaften wie dynamisch, durchsetzungsstark und kompetitiv (agentische Eigenschaften), welche kongruent zu der männlichen Geschlechtsrolle sind. Dies führt zu unterschiedlichen Möglichkeiten (Dürfen) für Frauen und Männer, Führungsverantwortung zu erlangen (vgl. Hernandez Bark et al., 2014). Und auch der Aspekt des Wollens wird dadurch beeinflusst. Das Wollen, ergo auch die Machtmotivation, ist ein wichtiger Einflussfaktor für das Erlangen von Führungsverantwortung (Hernandez Bark et al., under review; Schuh et al., 2014). Jedoch ist das Streben nach Macht (Machtmotivation, agentisch) inkongruent zu der weiblichen Geschlechtsrolle, was sich in einer niedrigeren Machtmotivation von Frauen widerspiegelt und zu einer Unterrepräsentanz von Frauen in Führungsverantwortung beiträgt (Hernandez Bark et al., under review; Schuh et al., 2014). Auch transformationale Führung ist positiv mit Führungsverantwortung verknüpft, jedoch ist sie kongruent zu der weiblichen Geschlechtsrolle und Frauen zeigen dieses Führungsverhalten stärker als Männer, was sich positiv auf die Repräsentanz von Frauen in Führungsverantwortung auswirken sollte (Eagly, Johannesen-Schmidt & van Engen, 2003; Hernandez Bark et al., under review). Jedoch ist Machtmotivation auch ein Prädiktor transformationaler Führung und der Zusammenhang zwischen Geschlecht und Führungsverantwortung wird seriell durch Machtmotivation und transformationale Führung mediiert, was zu der stärkeren Repräsentanz von Männern in Führungsverantwortung beiträgt (Hernandez Bark et al., under review). Dieser Vorteil wird noch dadurch verstärkt, dass der Zusammenhang zwischen Machtmotivation und transformationaler Führung für Männer stärker ist als für Frauen (Hernandez Bark et al., under review). Die Implikationen dieser Befunde für weitere Forschung und Stärkung von Gleichberechtigung von Frauen und Männern in Führungsverantwortung werden am Ende dieser Arbeit diskutiert.
Gender stereotypes and self-characterizations in Germany and Nigeria: a cross-cultural comparison
(2021)
Studies on the content of gender stereotypes have been conducted primarily in the United States, while research in other, particularly non-Western, countries is scarce. In this research, we assessed and compared the content of gender stereotypes and self-characterizations in Germany—a Western European country—and Nigeria—a West African country. We asked 403 Germans and Nigerians to rate three target groups (either men in general, women in general, or themselves) on 74 agentic and communal characteristics. We found that Nigerian women were rated as more agentic and more communal than German women, while German men were rated as more communal than Nigerian men, but similarly on agency. On self-characterizations, Nigerian men rated themselves as more communal than German men, but again similarly on agency; Nigerian women rated themselves as more agentic and more communal than German women. Within-country comparisons showed that in Germany, men and women were perceived as similarly agentic and communal, while in Nigeria, men and women were perceived as similarly agentic, but women were perceived as more communal than men (by both others and when rating themselves). Further analysis on individual agentic and communal characteristics, however, showed important differences in stereotypes and self-characterizations of men and women in both countries that were obscured when looking at overall agency and communion. Our results show that gender stereotyping of oneself and others is complex and highlights the impact of culture on people's perceptions of gender.
With our research, we contribute to the research on proactive work behavior in two ways. First, we examine a person's gender as a boundary condition for proactive behavior at work. Based on social role theory, we argue that women are less likely to receive credit for showing personal initiative (PI) than men. Second, we examine agency and communion as underlying mechanisms that translate PI into a person's evaluation and drive backlash effects. The hypotheses were tested in two complementary experimental studies (Study 1; N = 114, Study 2: N = 163) using simulated job interviews. Our results show that PI relates to better evaluations (likeability, perceived competence, performance evaluations, expected success and hireability) of the job applicant and that these effects are mediated by agency and communion. Further, we find backlash effects for women high in agency and men high in communion on likeability (Study 2). The implications of these results for organizations and future research are discussed.
Research on collective resilience processes still lacks a detailed understanding of psychological mechanisms at work when groups cope with adverse conditions, i.e., long-term processes, and how such mechanisms affect physical and mental well-being. As collective resilience will play a crucial part in facing looming climate change-related events such as floods, it is important to investigate these processes further. To this end, this study takes a novel holistic approach by combining resilience research, social psychology, and an archeological perspective to investigate the role of social identity as a collective resilience factor in the past and present. We hypothesize that social identification buffers against the negative effects of environmental threats in participants, which increases somatic symptoms related to stress, in a North Sea region historically prone to floods. A cross-sectional study (N = 182) was conducted to analyze the moderating effects of social identification on the relations between perceived threat of North Sea floods and both well-being and life satisfaction. The results support our hypothesis that social identification attenuates the relationship between threat perception and well-being, such that the relation is weaker for more strongly identified individuals. Contrary to our expectations, we did not find this buffering effect to be present for life satisfaction. Future resilience studies should further explore social identity as a resilience factor and how it operates in reducing environmental stress put on individuals and groups. Further, to help communities living in flood-prone areas better cope with future environmental stress, we recommend implementing interventions strengthening their social identities and hence collective resilience.
The present research investigates if and how a more digitally centered communication between supervisors and employees satisfies employees’ needs regarding the communication with their supervisors and influences employees’ attitudes toward the supervisor and the job. In a cross-sectional online study, 261 employees rated their supervisors’ actual and ideal use of different communication channels (i.e., telephone, face-to-face, email) regarding quality and quantity. Employees’ job satisfaction and their perceptions of their supervisors’ effectiveness and team identification were measured as dependent variables. Employees perceived face-to-face communication to be of higher quality than telephone and email communication, and they indicated a preference for more face-to-face communication with their supervisors than they actually had. Moreover, the perceived quality of communication, especially via face-to-face, was strongly and positively related to the dependent variables. These results provide insights into potential problems of increasing e-leadership in organizations. We conclude with recommendations to reduce these problems.
This cross-sectional study examined gender differences between male- and female-typed housework during the early COVID-19 lockdowns in 2020. Participants in Germany, India, Nigeria, and South Africa (N = 823) rated their housework share before and during the lockdown, then speculated about the division of housework performed by men and women in general, before and post-lockdown. Women spent more time on female-typed tasks and men (in Nigeria and South Africa) on male-typed tasks before and during the lockdown. Irrespective of participants’ gender, they speculated that men's and women's housework was more pronounced post-lockdown than before, but we only found gender differences in South Africa and India. Gender role ideology (GRI) moderated the gender‒housework relationship in Germany, but gender did not moderate the paid work hours and housework relationship in any country. Our findings suggest that gendered housework persisted in these countries and raises concerns that this pattern is likely to continue post-lockdown.
The papers in this Special Issue Part I “Revisioning, Rethinking, Restructuring Gender at Work: Quo Vadis Gender Stereotypes?” focus on the current state of gender inequality, particularly stereotypes. We present studies showing that differences in gender stereotypes still exist, confirm disadvantages for women in male-dominated roles and sectors and when the employment sector is not specified, but also disadvantages for men in female-dominated roles and sectors. In contrast to this general trend, one paper in Part II of this Special Issue found a preference for women over men as job candidates in their study. Incongruence emerged as a striking common theme to explain these gender differences, whereby some studies focused on the perceived incongruence from the actor's perspective and how external factors contribute to these perceptions, whereas others looked at the perceived incongruence from the observer's perspective. We summarize the papers and briefly discuss the key points of Part I at the end of this editorial.