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The last decade has seen a sharp increase in the number of scientific publications describing physiological and pathological functions of extracellular vesicles (EVs), a collective term covering various subtypes of cell-released, membranous structures, called exosomes, microvesicles, microparticles, ectosomes, oncosomes, apoptotic bodies, and many other names. However, specific issues arise when working with these entities, whose size and amount often make them difficult to obtain as relatively pure preparations, and to characterize properly. The International Society for Extracellular Vesicles (ISEV) proposed Minimal Information for Studies of Extracellular Vesicles (“MISEV”) guidelines for the field in 2014. We now update these “MISEV2014” guidelines based on evolution of the collective knowledge in the last four years. An important point to consider is that ascribing a specific function to EVs in general, or to subtypes of EVs, requires reporting of specific information beyond mere description of function in a crude, potentially contaminated, and heterogeneous preparation. For example, claims that exosomes are endowed with exquisite and specific activities remain difficult to support experimentally, given our still limited knowledge of their specific molecular machineries of biogenesis and release, as compared with other biophysically similar EVs. The MISEV2018 guidelines include tables and outlines of suggested protocols and steps to follow to document specific EV-associated functional activities. Finally, a checklist is provided with summaries of key points.
The Recife’s School was a Brazilian movement during the last quarter of the 19th century, whose main goals were to inform the Empire Court of provincial problems and introduce Brazil to ideas and theories of German philosophers. The first history of Brazilian literature was written in 1888 by Sílvio Romero and is considered part of this movement. According to this work, Brazil should be connected to German thought. Romero’s reception of the German authors is not passive; he engages in dialogue through his text by connecting, criticizing and elaborating upon his references. The autonomy of thought he proves in this process is the same autonomy he demands from Brazilian intellectualists. In order to develop the talents inherent to Brazil, he believes they should widen their cultural horizons, instead of only being dependent on French culture. Only then Brazil would be able to occupy a position equal amongst developed nations. Romero’s conception of race and his idea, that it is possible to include the totality of Brazilian literature in his work are both out of date. However, in the História da Literatura Brasileira there are methodological aspects in common with the modern theories on writing histories of literature, such as the choice of texts not only according to aesthetics criterions and the interdisciplinarity, because the author relates biology, sociology, economy, and politics with literature.
Uwe Timm thematisiert die Teilung und die Wende in seiner Berlin-Trilogie mit den Romanen "Johannisnacht" (1996), "Rot" (2001) und "Halbschatten" (2008). Bei den zwei ersten bieten die Erinnerungen und Erfahrungen der Figuren ein vielfältiges Panorama der Nachkriegszeit in Ost und West dar: In "Johannisnacht" tritt das Chaos in der Stadt im Jahr 1995 in Erscheinung sowie die Integrationsschwierigkeiten zwischen "Ossis" und "Wessis". In "Rot" gehört das Scheitern des Sozialismus in der DDR zu den Enttäuschungen der 68er. In "Halbschatten" konzentriert sich der Autor auf die Deutsche Geschichte vor 1945 und sucht die Ursachen für das Szenario der beiden ersten Romane der Trilogie in der militaristischen Vergangenheit Preußens. Der Invalidenfriedhof, der älteste der Stadt, erscheint als Bühne der Geschichte und als Ort, wo das Gedächtnis konkret wird, denn er hat nicht nur die militärische preußische Elite und mächtige Nazis mit Widerstandskämpfern vereinigt, er wurde auch von der Berliner Mauer geteilt.