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Forgotten features of head zones and their relation to diagnostically relevant acupuncture points
(2011)
In the 1890s Sir Henry Head discovered certain areas of the skin that develop tenderness (allodynia) in the course of visceral disease. These areas were later termed ‘Head zones’. In addition, he also emphasized the existence of specific points within these zones, that he called ‘maximum points’, a finding that seems to be almost forgotten today. We hypothesized that two important groups of acupuncture points, the diagnostically relevant Mu and Shu points, spatially and functionally coincide with these maximum points to a large extent. A comparison of Head's papers with the Huang Di Neijing (Yellow Thearch's Inner Classic) and the Zhen Jiu Jia Yi Jing (Systematic Classic of Acupuncture and Moxibustion), two of the oldest still extant Chinese sources on acupuncture, revealed astonishing parallels between the two concepts regarding both point locations and functional aspects. These findings suggest that the Chinese discovery of viscerocutaneous reflexes preceded the discovery in the West by more than 2000 years. Furthermore, the fact that Chinese medicine uses Mu and Shu points not only diagnostically but also therapeutically may give us new insights into the underlying mechanisms of acupuncture.
In den Neurowissenschaften führt die Erforschung des vegetativen Nervensystem (VNS) immer noch ein Schattendasein. Einer der wichtigsten Teile des VNS, der Hirnstamm, ist dabei besonders schlecht erforscht, obwohl er die Steuerzentren für Herzschlag, Blutdruckregulation, Atmung, Verdauung, und viele weitere lebenswichtige Funktionen beherbergt. Ein wichtiger Grund für diesen Umstand ist, dass die funktionelle Kernspintomographie (fMRT) sich in ihrer bisherigen Form nur bedingt für Messungen im Hirnstamm eignet. Ziel dieser Arbeit war es daher, neue Ansätze zur fMRT-Messung vegetativer Zentren im menschlichen Hirnstamm zu entwickeln. Nach einer Einführung in die Neuroanatomie sowie die physikalischen und physiologischen Grundlagen der strukturellen und funktionellen MRT werden im mittleren Teil der Arbeit die Entwicklung sowie der Test neuer Ansätze zur Hirnstamm-fMRT beschrieben. Dabei untersucht der Autor zunächst, welche grundlegenden Probleme einer konventionellen fMRT-Messung im Hirnstamm entgegenstehen. Es stellt sich heraus, dass alle hirnstamm-spezifischen Störquellen direkt oder indirekt auf den Herzschlag zurückzuführen sind. Aus den vorhandenen Ansätzen zur Korrektur solcher Störungen wird die Herzschlag-Taktung ausgewählt. Bei diesem Verfahren erfolgt die Aufnahme der fMRT-Bilder zeitlich gekoppelt an dem Herzschlag des Probanden, um sämtliche kardiogenen Rauschquellen zu unterdrücken. Anstelle des häufig verwendeten, aber statistisch problematischen Guimaraes-Verfahrens zur Korrektur der durch die Herzfrequenzvariabilität bedingten Schwankungen des MR-Signals wird in der vorliegenden Arbeit der die sog. Dual-Echo-Bildgebung verwendet. Dabei wird die konventionelle EPI-Sequenz (echo-planar imaging) dahingehend erweitert, dass pro Bild anstelle eines Echos zwei aufgenommen werden. Durch Quotientenbildung der beiden Bilder kann so der fluktuierende Teil des Signals entfernt werden. Beim Vergleich verschiedener Varianten der Quotientenbildung stellt sich ein neu entwickelter, exponentieller Ansatz als überlegen heraus. Danach werden die Auswirkungen verschiedener Methoden der Bewegungskorrektur und Schichtorientierung verglichen, um das Optimum für Messungen im Hirnstamm zu ermitteln. Nach Tests des neuen Verfahrens an verschiedenen fMRT-Datensätzen werden Empfehlungen für die Kombination der verschiedenen Parameter gegeben. Es zeigt sich, dass die Standardabweichung der fMRT-Bilder mit der neuen Methode im unteren Hirnstamm um 13% - 33% reduziert werden kann. Ein Sensitivitätstest an motorischen Hirnstammkernen, welche durch ein motorisches Paradigma aktiviert werden, zeigt, dass die jeweiligen Kerne in 85% - 95% der Fälle eindeutig identifiziert werden können. Im dritten Teil der Arbeit erfolgt die Anwendung der neuen Methode auf die Messung von Aktivierungen vegetativer Zentren. Hier wird als unkonventionellen Stimulus des vegetativen Nervensystems die Akupunktur verwendet. Dies geschieht u.a. mit der Zielsetzung, zur Aufdeckung des noch immer unbekannten Wirkmechanismus dieser Therapieform beizutragen. Als Akupunkturpunkt wird Pc6 am Handgelenk gewählt, da die Studienlage eindeutig dessen Effektivität bei der Behandlung von Übelkeit und Erbrechen sowie eine Beeinflussung der Magen-Peristaltik zeigt und die neuralen Zentren hierfür größtenteils im Hirnstamm lokalisiert sind. Der Autor stellt daher die Hypothese auf, dass die Akupunkturwirkung in diesem Fall über den Vagusnerv und dessen Hirnstammkern, den Nucleus dorsalis nervi vagi, vermittelt wird. Vor der Überprüfung dieser Hypothese erfolgt zunächst eine Methodenkritik der bisherigen Akupunktur-fMRT-Forschung. Anhand einer Gruppe von Studien, welche über Aktivierungen der Sehrinde bei Akupunktur visuell relevanter Punkte berichten, weist der Autor eine Reihe methodischer Probleme nach. Anhand einer eigenen Studie kann er mittels Independent Component Analysis (ICA) zeigen, dass die von den bisherigen Studien berichteten, visuellen Aktivierungen höchstwahrscheinlich nicht auf die Wirkung der Akupunktur zurückzuführen sind. Um einige der Probleme dieser Studien zu umgehen, entwickelt der Autor ein neues psychophysikalisches Verfahren, bei dem die Probanden während der Akupunktur kontinuierlich die Stärke der Nadelempfindung („DeQi“) auf einer visuellen Analogskala bewerten. Mit Hilfe dieses Verfahrens gelingt schließlich der Nachweis einer Hirnstamm-Aktivierung unter Akupunktur-Stimulation, deren Lokalisation mit der des Nucleus dorsalis nervi vagi vereinbar ist. Dies bestätigt die ursprüngliche Hypothese und zeigt gleichzeitig die Eignung des neuen Verfahrens für die Bildgebung vegetativer Hirnstammzentren.
The study of acupuncture-related sensations, like deqi and propagated sensations along channels (PSCs), has a long tradition in acupuncture basic research. The phenomenon itself, however, remains poorly understood. To study the connection between PSC and classical meridians, we applied a geographic information system (GIS) to analyze sketches of acupuncture sensations from healthy volunteers after laser acupuncture. As PSC can be subtle, we aimed at reducing the confounding impact of external stimuli by carrying out the experiment in a floatation tank under restricted environmental stimulation. 82.4% of the subjects experienced PSC, that is, they had line-like or 2-dimensional sensations, although there were some doubts that these were related to the laser stimulation. Line-like sensations on the same limb were averaged to calculate sensation mean courses, which were then compared to classical meridians by measuring the mean distance between the two. Distances ranged from 0.83 cm in the case of the heart (HT) and spleen (SP) meridian to 6.27 cm in the case of the kidney (KI) meridian. Furthermore, PSC was observed to “jump” between adjacent meridians. In summary, GIS has proven to be a valuable tool to study PSC, and our results suggest a close connection between PSC and classical meridians.
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) has been used for more than a decade to investigate possible supraspinal mechanisms of acupuncture stimulation. More than 60 studies and several review articles have been published on the topic. However, till now some acupuncture-fMRI studies have not adopted all methodological standards applied to most other fMRI studies. In this critical review, we comment on some of the problems including the choice of baseline, interpretation of deactivations, attention control and implications of different group statistics. We illustrate the possible impact of these problems by focussing on some early findings, namely activations of visual and auditory cortical areas, when acupoints were stimulated that are believed to have a therapeutic effect on vision or hearing in traditional Chinese medicine. While we are far from questioning the validity of using fMRI for the study of acupuncture effects, we think that activations reported by some of these studies were probably not a direct result of acupuncture stimulation but rather attributable to one or more of the methodological problems covered here. Finally, we try to offer solutions for these problems where possible.
Acupuncture is a therapy based on sensory stimulation of the human
body by means of metal needles. The exact underlying mechanisms of
acupuncture have not been clarified so far. Functional magnetic
resonance imaging (fMRI) has become an important tool in
acupuncture research. Standard acupuncture needles, which are made
of ferromagnetic steel, however, are problematic in
acupuncture-fMRI studies for several reasons, such as attraction
by the scanner's magnetic field, significant image distortions and
signal-dropouts, when positioned close to the head or even heating
due to absorption of radio frequency (RF). The aim of this study
was to compare two novel types of acupuncture needles with a
standard needle for their effect on MRI image quality. The
standard needle severely reduced image quality, when located
inside the RF coil. The nonferromagnetic metal needle may pose a
risk due to RF heating, while the plastic needle has a
significantly larger diameter. In conclusion, our recommendations
are: (1) standard needles should not be used in MRI; (2)
Nonferromagnetic metal needles seem to be the best choice for
acupoints outside of the transmitter coil; and (3) only plastic
needles are suited for points inside the coil. Laser acupuncture
may be a safe alternative, too.
Objectives: The aim of this study was to compare the effects of acupuncture and medical training therapy alone and in combination with those of usual care on the pain sensation of patients with frequent episodic and chronic tension-type headache.
Design: This was a prospective single-centre randomised controlled trial with four balanced treatment arms. The allocation was carried out by pre-generated randomisation lists in the ratio 1:1:1:1 with different permutation block sizes.
Setting: The study was undertaken in the outpatient clinic of Rehabilitation Medicine of the Hannover Medical School.
Participants and interventions: Ninety-six adult patients with tension-type headache were included and randomised into usual care (n = 24), acupuncture (n = 24), medical training (n = 24), and combination of acupuncture and medical training (n = 24). One patient was excluded from analysis because of withdrawing her/his consent, leaving 95 patients for intention to treat analysis. Each therapy arm consisted of 6 weeks of treatment with 12 interventions. Follow-up was at 3 and 6 months.
Main outcome measures: Pain intensity (average, maximum and minimum), frequency of headache, responder rate (50% frequency reduction), duration of headache and use of headache medication.
Clinical results: The combination of acupuncture and medical training therapy significantly reduced mean pain intensity compared to usual care (mean = −38%, standard deviation = 25%, p = 0.012). Comparable reductions were observed for maximal pain intensity (−25%, standard deviation = 20%, 0.014) and for minimal pain intensity (−35%, standard deviation = 31%, 0.03). In contrast, neither acupuncture nor medical training therapy differed significantly from usual care. No between-group differences were found in headache frequency, mean duration of headache episodes, and pain medication intake. At 3 months, the majority of all patients showed a reduction of at least 50% in headache frequency. At 6 months, significantly higher responder rates were found in all intervention groups compared to usual care.
Conclusions: In contrast to monotherapy, only the combination of acupuncture and medical training therapy was significantly superior in reduction of pain intensity compared to usual care.
Background: A delta and C fibers are the major pain-conducting nerve fibers, activate only partly the same brain areas, and are differently involved in pain syndromes. Whether a stimulus excites predominantly A delta or C fibers is a commonly asked question in basic pain research but a quick test was lacking so far. Methodology/Principal Findings: Of 77 verbal descriptors of pain sensations, "pricking", "dull" and "pressing" distinguished best (95% cases correctly) between A delta fiber mediated (punctate pressure produced by means of von Frey hairs) and C fiber mediated (blunt pressure) pain, applied to healthy volunteers in experiment 1. The sensation was assigned to A delta fibers when "pricking" but neither "dull" nor "pressing" were chosen, and to C fibers when the sum of the selections of "dull" or "pressing" was greater than that of the selection of "pricking". In experiment 2, with an independent cohort, the three-descriptor questionnaire achieved sensitivity and specificity above 0.95 for distinguishing fiber preferential non-mechanical induced pain (laser heat, exciting A delta fibers, and 5-Hz electric stimulation, exciting C fibers). Conclusion: A three-item verbal rating test using the words "pricking", "dull", and "pressing" may provide sufficient information to characterize a pain sensation evoked by a physical stimulus as transmitted via A delta or via C fibers. It meets the criteria of a screening test by being easy to administer, taking little time, being comfortable in handling, and inexpensive while providing high specificity for relevant information.