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Taspase1 stellt die bisher einzige Typ2-Asparaginase mit proteolytischer Aktivität dar. Das wichtigste Substrat der Taspase1 ist das MLL-Protein, einem Homolog des Trithorax- Proteins aus Drosophila melanogaster, das auch dort eine wichtige Rolle bei Differenzierungsprozessen spielt. Bei Patienten mit einer t(4;11)-Translokation ist Taspase1 maßgeblich an der Ausbildung einer t(4;11)-assoziierten Leukämie beteiligt. Die Inhibierung der proteolytischen Aktivität der Taspase1 könnte daher einen Ansatzpunkt für eine neuartige Krebstherapie darstellen. Aufgrund der ungewöhnlichen Eigenschaften von Taspase1 ist es bisher nicht gelungen einen selektiven Inhibitor für das katalytische Zentrum der Taspase1 zu identifizieren. Unter nativen Bedingungen (ca. 50 mM NaCl) befindet sich Taspase1 bereits in einem nahezu vollständig inhibierten Zustand, da im katalytischen Zentrum der Taspase1 ein Chloridion komplexiert ist. Dieses Chloridion wird einzig und allein nach Interaktion mit dem natürlichen Substrat MLL aus dem katalytischen Zentrum verdrängt, was zu einer kurzfristigen Aktivierung der Taspase1 führt. Nach Ablauf der hydrolytischen Spaltung des Substrates nimmt das Chloridion wieder seine Position im katalytischen Zentrum ein. Unter diesen Bedingungen ist aus sterischen Gründen die Bindung eines potentiellen Inhibitors im katalytischen Zentrum nicht möglich. Durch Herstellung von Mutanten der Taspase1 und deren Substrats konnte der Mechanismus der katalytischen Spaltung durch Taspase1 aufgeklärt werden. Dabei erwiesen sich drei Aminoäuren als essentiell für die Hydrolyse. Interessanterweise ist die Anwesenheit des Substrates, insbesondere des Aspartates an Position Sieben der cleavage sites CS1 bzw. CS2 notwendig um den katalytischen Prozess zu starten. Das negativ geladene Aspartat, verdrängt zunächst das Chloridion von seiner Position und aktiviert dadurch das katalytische Zentrum (Rotation von Threonin 234). Erst dadurch wird Threonin 234 zu einer katalytisch aktiven Aminosäure und kann einen nukleophilen Angriff auf die Peptidbindung zwischen Aspartat und Glycin des Substrates durchführen. Die Hydrolyse wird dabei durch die OH-Gruppe des Serins 252 durch Wechselwirkung mit dem Carboxylsauerstoff unterstützt. Durch Mutation beider Aspartate an Position sieben im artifiziellen Substrat 2CL zu Glycin oder Lysin führte zu einem vollständigen Verlust der hydrolytischen Spaltung an CS1 und zu einem starken Rückgang der hydrolytischen Spaltung an CS2. Die Mutationen T234D und S252D der Taspase1 führten beide zum vollständigen Verlust der katalytischen Spaltung, sowohl in cis, als auch in trans. Unter Verwendung des Taspase1-Aktivitätsassays konnte der transkriptionelle Regulator MLL4 als potentielles Substrat der Taspase1 identifiziert werden.
Background: Threonine Aspartase 1 (Taspase1) mediates cleavage of the mixed lineage leukemia (MLL) protein and leukemia provoking MLL-fusions. In contrast to other proteases, the understanding of Taspase1's (patho)biological relevance and function is limited, since neither small molecule inhibitors nor cell based functional assays for Taspase1 are currently available. Methodology/Findings: Efficient cell-based assays to probe Taspase1 function in vivo are presented here. These are composed of glutathione S-transferase, autofluorescent protein variants, Taspase1 cleavage sites and rational combinations of nuclear import and export signals. The biosensors localize predominantly to the cytoplasm, whereas expression of biologically active Taspase1 but not of inactive Taspase1 mutants or of the protease Caspase3 triggers their proteolytic cleavage and nuclear accumulation. Compared to in vitro assays using recombinant components the in vivo assay was highly efficient. Employing an optimized nuclear translocation algorithm, the triple-color assay could be adapted to a high-throughput microscopy platform (Z'factor = 0.63). Automated high-content data analysis was used to screen a focused compound library, selected by an in silico pharmacophor screening approach, as well as a collection of fungal extracts. Screening identified two compounds, N-[2-[(4-amino-6-oxo-3H-pyrimidin-2-yl)sulfanyl]ethyl]benzenesulfonamideand 2-benzyltriazole-4,5-dicarboxylic acid, which partially inhibited Taspase1 cleavage in living cells. Additionally, the assay was exploited to probe endogenous Taspase1 in solid tumor cell models and to identify an improved consensus sequence for efficient Taspase1 cleavage. This allowed the in silico identification of novel putative Taspase1 targets. Those include the FERM Domain-Containing Protein 4B, the Tyrosine-Protein Phosphatase Zeta, and DNA Polymerase Zeta. Cleavage site recognition and proteolytic processing of these substrates were verified in the context of the biosensor. Conclusions: The assay not only allows to genetically probe Taspase1 structure function in vivo, but is also applicable for high-content screening to identify Taspase1 inhibitors. Such tools will provide novel insights into Taspase1's function and its potential therapeutic relevance.
Background: Leaf venation traits are important for many research fields such as systematics and evolutionary biology, plant physiology, climate change, and paleoecology. In spite of an increasing demand for vein trait data, studies are often still data-limited because the development of methods that allow rapid generation of large sets of vein data has lagged behind. Recently, non-destructive X-ray technology has proven useful as an alternative to traditional slow and destructive chemical-based methods. Non-destructive techniques more readily allow the use of herbarium specimens, which provide an invaluable but underexploited resource of vein data and related environmental information. The utility of 2D X-ray technology and microfocus X-ray computed tomography, however, has been compromised by insufficient image resolution. Here, we advanced X-ray technology by increasing image resolution and throughput without the application of contrast agents.
Results: For 2D contact microradiography, we developed a method which allowed us to achieve image resolutions of up to 7 µm, i.e. a 3.6-fold increase compared to the industrial standard (25 µm resolution). Vein tracing was further optimized with our image processing standards that were specifically adjusted for different types of leaf structure and the needs of higher imaging throughput. Based on a test dataset, in 91% of the samples the 7 µm approach led to a significant improvement in estimations of minor vein density compared to the industrial standard. Using microfocus X-ray computed tomography, very high-resolution images were obtained from a virtual 3D–2D transformation process, which was superior to that of 3D images.
Conclusions: Our 2D X-ray method with a significantly improved resolution advances rapid non-destructive bulk scanning at a quality that in many cases is sufficient to determine key venation traits. Together with our high-resolution microfocus X-ray computed tomography method, both non-destructive approaches will help in vein trait data mining from museum collections, which provide an underexploited resource of historical and recent data on environmental and evolutionary change. In spite of the significant increase in effective image resolution, a combination of high-throughput and full visibility of the vein network (including the smallest veins and their connectivity) remains challenging, however.
