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This paper is concerned with the transition from hunting and gathering to food production in West Africa, based on evidence from the Sahel Zone of Burkina Faso compiled by field research during the last years. Our study intends to enhance the knowledge about the West African versions of this transition, traditionally seen as one of the most fundamental changes in human prehistory. Embedded in an interregional program the Sahel Zone of Burkina Faso has proved to be one of its most unexpected examples.
La coupure que l'on constate dans les forêts denses africaines au niveau du Togo et du Bénin soulève de nombreuses questions sur les rapports forêt/savane au cours des derniers millénaires. Le projet Dahomey Gap vise à y répondre, par une approche pluridisciplinaire intégrant botanique et histoire de la végétation dans le Sud-Bénin et le Sud-Ouest du Nigéria. A partir de travaux déjà avancés sur la végétation du Bénin et des premières prospections palynologiques, quelques aspects du projet sont exposés ici: tels la caractérisation des différentes formations forestières du Bénin, les premiers résultats sur l'histoire holocène de la végétation du Sud-Bénin (mangroves, forêts, savanes) enregistrée depuis près de 7000 ans dans les lagunes.
In the inundation area - the basin of the former larger Lake Chad - a special type of sorghum is grown on the clay soils (firgi). This dry-season guinea corn is also called dwarf sorghum or masakwa. In Kanuri, the dominant language in the region, sorghum is called ngawuli. The dry-season types are called ngawuli firgibe (lit. translated: sorghum of the firgi). During the dry season when the natural vegetation becomes dry and yellow, masakwa fields appear in prominent green covering large areas of the clay plains. The most important natural factor for this specialized dry season cropping is the presence of soils with a high clay content. For a better understanding of masakwa and its related issues, a multidisciplinary sub-project (G1) has been established within the SFB 268 (Joint Research Project: History of Culture and Language in the Natural Environment of the West-African Savannah). This project in which all disciplines participate is entitled: "Natural basis for masakwa cultivation and its meaning for the settlement history of the clay plains (firgi) in the Chad basin".
Im SW Burkina Fasos (sechs Monate Regenzeit und durchschnittlich über 1000 mm Niederschlag) wurden mehrere Trockenwälder auf ihr Artenspektrum und die Bodenverhältnisse hin untersucht. Die Waldformationen fallen durch die Dichte der Gehölzbedeckung, ihren Lianenreichtum und das fast vollständige Fehlen von Gräsern auf. Typische Gehölzarten sind Anogeissus leiocarpus, Diospyros mespiliformis und die Liane Saba senegalensis. Der dichte Strauchunterwuchs und die fehlende Grasschicht verhindern das regelmäßige Eindringen von Buschfeuern. Wegen der Dichte und des Alters der Bäume belegen diese Waldformationen, daß an den Standorten, zumindest für einen sehr langen Zeitraum, kein Feldbau betrieben wurde. Daher konnten sich, auch auf eher als ungünstig zu bewertenden Böden, Trockenwälder ausbilden, die zumindest in ihrer Physiognomie der potentiellen natürlichen Vegetation entsprechen. Jedoch finden sich in den Wäldern oft Spuren menschlicher Aktivitäten aus der Vergangenheit, so z.B. Steinsetzungen, Siedlungshügel und Gruben. Außerdem lassen sich vielfach Anzeichen einer rezenten Nutzung beobachten, so z.B. für die Entnahme von Werkholz, das Schneiteln mancher Baumarten zur Viehfuttergewinnung, gelegentliche Beweidung und das Sammeln von Wildpflanzen.
Au Sahel du Burkina Faso, le diagramme pollinique d'Oursi fournit des évidences sur l'apparition de l'agriculture, il y a environ 3000 ans. A partir de ces faits, le but principal des recherches archéologiques dans le cadre du SFB 268 était de trouver et de fouiller des sites qui seraient à même d'apporter des informations sur cette période décisive autour de 3000 ans avant l'actuel. Pour cela, nous avons concentré notre travail sur les provinces du Séno et plus particulièrement de l'Oudalan. Le paysage de cette région est marqué par des dunes qui s'organisent grossièrement en cordons d'orientation nord-est/sud-ouest à travers notre terrain.
The pT-differential non-linear flow modes, v4,22, v5,32, v6,33 and v6,222 for π±, K±, K0S , p + p¯¯¯, Λ + Λ¯¯¯¯ and ϕ-meson have been measured for the first time at sNN−−−√ = 5.02 TeV in Pb-Pb collisions with the ALICE detector at the Large Hadron Collider. The results were obtained with a multi-particle technique, correlating the identified hadrons with reference charged particles from a different pseudorapidity region. These non-linear observables probe the contribution from the second and third order initial spatial anisotropy coefficients to higher flow harmonics. All the characteristic features observed in previous pT-differential anisotropic flow measurements for various particle species are also present in the non-linear flow modes, i.e. increase of magnitude with increasing centrality percentile, mass ordering at low pT and particle type grouping in the intermediate pT range. Hydrodynamical calculations (iEBE-VISHNU) that use different initial conditions and values of shear and bulk viscosity to entropy density ratios are confronted with the data at low transverse momenta. These calculations exhibit a better agreement with the anisotropic flow coefficients than the non-linear flow modes. These observations indicate that non-linear flow modes can provide additional discriminatory power in the study of initial conditions as well as new stringent constraints to hydrodynamical calculations.
The inclusive production of the J/ψ and ψ(2S) charmonium states is studied as a function of centrality in p-Pb collisions at a centre-of-mass energy per nucleon pair sNN−−−√ = 8.16 TeV at the LHC. The measurement is performed in the dimuon decay channel with the ALICE apparatus in the centre-of-mass rapidity intervals −4.46 < ycms < −2.96 (Pb-going direction) and 2.03 < ycms < 3.53 (p-going direction), down to zero transverse momentum (pT). The J/ψ and ψ(2S) production cross sections are evaluated as a function of the collision centrality, estimated through the energy deposited in the zero degree calorimeter located in the Pb-going direction. The pT-differential J/ψ production cross section is measured at backward and forward rapidity for several centrality classes, together with the corresponding average 〈pT〉 and ⟨p2T⟩ values. The nuclear effects affecting the production of both charmonium states are studied using the nuclear modification factor. In the p-going direction, a suppression of the production of both charmonium states is observed, which seems to increase from peripheral to central collisions. In the Pb-going direction, however, the centrality dependence is different for the two states: the nuclear modification factor of the J/ψ increases from below unity in peripheral collisions to above unity in central collisions, while for the ψ(2S) it stays below or consistent with unity for all centralities with no significant centrality dependence. The results are compared with measurements in p-Pb collisions at sNN−−−√ = 5.02 TeV and no significant dependence on the energy of the collision is observed. Finally, the results are compared with theoretical models implementing various nuclear matter effects.
Higher harmonic non-linear flow modes of charged hadrons in Pb-Pb collisions at √sNN = 5.02 TeV
(2020)
Anisotropic flow coefficients, vn, non-linear flow mode coefficients, χn,mk, and correlations among different symmetry planes, ρn,mk are measured in Pb-Pb collisions at sNN−−−√ = 5.02 TeV. Results obtained with multi-particle correlations are reported for the transverse momentum interval 0.2 < pT < 5.0 GeV/c within the pseudorapidity interval 0.4 < |η| < 0.8 as a function of collision centrality. The vn coefficients and χn,mk and ρn,mk are presented up to the ninth and seventh harmonic order, respectively. Calculations suggest that the correlations measured in different symmetry planes and the non-linear flow mode coefficients are dependent on the shear and bulk viscosity to entropy ratios of the medium created in heavy-ion collisions. The comparison between these measurements and those at lower energies and calculations from hydrodynamic models places strong constraints on the initial conditions and transport properties of the system.
The inclusive J/ψ elliptic (v2) and triangular (v3) flow coefficients measured at forward rapidity (2.5 < y < 4) and the v2 measured at midrapidity (|y| < 0.9) in Pb-Pb collisions at sNN−−−√ = 5.02 TeV using the ALICE detector at the LHC are reported. The entire Pb-Pb data sample collected during Run 2 is employed, amounting to an integrated luminosity of 750 μb−1 at forward rapidity and 93 μb−1 at midrapidity. The results are obtained using the scalar product method and are reported as a function of transverse momentum pT and collision centrality. At midrapidity, the J/ψ v2 is in agreement with the forward rapidity measurement. The centrality averaged results indicate a positive J/ψ v3 with a significance of more than 5σ at forward rapidity in the pT range 2 < pT < 5 GeV/c. The forward rapidity v2, v3, and v3/v2 results at low and intermediate pT (pT ≲ 8 GeV/c) exhibit a mass hierarchy when compared to pions and D mesons, while converging into a species-independent curve at higher pT. At low and intermediate pT, the results could be interpreted in terms of a later thermalization of charm quarks compared to light quarks, while at high pT, path-length dependent effects seem to dominate. The J/ψ v2 measurements are further compared to a microscopic transport model calculation. Using a simplified extension of the quark scaling approach involving both light and charm quark flow components, it is shown that the D-meson vn measurements can be described based on those for charged pions and J/ψ flow.
