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Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common form of dementia in the elderly; important risk factors are old age and inheritance of the apolipoprotein E4 (APOE4) allele. Changes in amyloid precursor protein (APP) binding, trafficking, and sorting may be important AD causative factors. Secretase-mediated APP cleavage produces neurotoxic amyloid-beta (Aβ) peptides, which form lethal deposits in the brain. In vivo and in vitro studies have implicated sortilin-related receptor (SORL1) as an important factor in APP trafficking and processing. Recent in vitro evidence has associated the APOE4 allele and alterations in the SORL1 pathway with AD development and progression. Here, we analyzed SORL1 expression in neural stem cells (NSCs) from AD patients carrying null, one, or two copies of the APOE4 allele. We show reduced SORL1 expression only in NSCs of a patient carrying two copies of APOE4 allele with increased Aβ/SORL1 localization along the degenerated neurites. Interestingly, SORL1 binding to APP was largely compromised; this could be almost completely reversed by γ-secretase (but not β-secretase) inhibitor treatment. These findings may yield new insights into the complex interplay of SORL1 and AD pathology and point to NSCs as a valuable tool to address unsolved AD-related questions in vitro.
Novel insights into the regulation of cyclooxygenase-2 expression by platelet-cancer cell cross-talk
(2015)
Platelets are activated by the interaction with cancer cells and release enhanced levels of lipid mediators [such as thromboxane (TX)A2 and prostaglandin (PG)E2, generated from arachidonic acid (AA) by the activity of cyclooxygenase (COX)-1], granule content, including ADP and growth factors, chemokines, proteases and Wnt proteins. Moreover, activated platelets shed different vesicles, such as microparticles (MPs) and exosomes (rich in genetic material such as mRNAs and miRNAs). These platelet-derived products induce several phenotypic changes in cancer cells which confer high metastatic capacity. A central event involves an aberrant expression of COX-2 which influences cell-cycle progression and contribute to the acquisition of a cell migratory phenotype through the induction of epithelial mesenchymal transition genes and down-regulation of E-cadherin expression. The identification of novel molecular determinants involved in the cross-talk between platelets and cancer cells has led to identify novel targets for anti-cancer drug development.
Chromosomal translocations can lead to the formation of chimeric genes encoding fusion proteins such as PML/RARalpha, PLZF/RARalpha, and AML-1/ETO, which are able to induce and maintain acute myeloid leukemia (AML). One key mechanism in leukemogenesis is increased self renewal of leukemic stem cells via aberrant activation of the Wnt signaling pathway. Either X-RAR, PML/RARalpha and PLZF/RARalpha or AML-1/ETO activate Wnt signaling by upregulating gamma-catenin and beta-catenin. In a prospective study, a lower risk of leukemia was observed with aspirin use, which is consistent with numerous studies reporting an inverse association of aspirin with other cancers. Furthermore, a reduction in leukemia risk was associated with use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), where the effects on AML risk was FAB subtype-specific. To better investigate whether NSAID treatment is effective, we used Sulindac Sulfide in X-RARalpha-positive progenitor cell models. Sulindac Sulfide (SSi) is a derivative of Sulindac, a NSAID known to inactivate Wnt signaling. We found that SSi downregulated both beta-catenin and gamma-catenin in X-RARalpha-expressing cells and reversed the leukemic phenotype by reducing stem cell capacity and increasing differentiation potential in X-RARalpha-positive HSCs. The data presented herein show that SSi inhibits the leukemic cell growth as well as hematopoietic progenitors cells (HPCs) expressing PML/RARalpha, and it indicates that Sulindac is a valid molecular therapeutic approach that should be further validated using in vivo leukemia models and in clinical settings.
The adaptor molecule stimulator of IFN genes (STING) is central to production of type I IFNs in response to infection with DNA viruses and to presence of host DNA in the cytosol. Excessive release of type I IFNs through STING-dependent mechanisms has emerged as a central driver of several interferonopathies, including systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), Aicardi–Goutières syndrome (AGS), and stimulator of IFN genes-associated vasculopathy with onset in infancy (SAVI). The involvement of STING in these diseases points to an unmet need for the development of agents that inhibit STING signaling. Here, we report that endogenously formed nitro-fatty acids can covalently modify STING by nitro-alkylation. These nitro-alkylations inhibit STING palmitoylation, STING signaling, and subsequently, the release of type I IFN in both human and murine cells. Furthermore, treatment with nitro-fatty acids was sufficient to inhibit production of type I IFN in fibroblasts derived from SAVI patients with a gain-of-function mutation in STING. In conclusion, we have identified nitro-fatty acids as endogenously formed inhibitors of STING signaling and propose for these lipids to be considered in the treatment of STING-dependent inflammatory diseases.
Background: Antibody detection of SARS-CoV-2 requires an understanding of its variation, course, and duration.
Methods: Antibody response to SARS-CoV-2 was evaluated over 5–430 days on 828 samples across COVID-19 severity levels, for total antibody (TAb), IgG, IgA, IgM, neutralizing antibody (NAb), antibody avidity, and for receptor-binding-domain (RBD), spike (S), or nucleoprotein (N). Specificity was determined on 676 pre-pandemic samples.
Results: Sensitivity at 30–60 days post symptom onset (pso) for TAb-S/RBD, TAb-N, IgG-S, IgG-N, IgA-S, IgM-RBD, and NAb was 96.6%, 99.5%, 89.7%, 94.3%, 80.9%, 76.9% and 92.8%, respectively. Follow-up 430 days pso revealed: TAb-S/RBD increased slightly (100.0%); TAb-N decreased slightly (97.1%); IgG-S and IgA-S decreased moderately (81.4%, 65.7%); NAb remained positive (94.3%), slightly decreasing in activity after 300 days; there was correlation with IgG-S (Rs = 0.88) and IgA-S (Rs = 0.71); IgG-N decreased significantly from day 120 (15.7%); IgM-RBD dropped after 30–60 days (22.9%). High antibody avidity developed against S/RBD steadily with time in 94.3% of patients after 430 days. This correlated with persistent antibody detection depending on antibody-binding efficiency of the test design. Severe COVID-19 correlated with earlier and higher antibody response, mild COVID-19 was heterogeneous with a wide range of antibody reactivities. Specificity of the tests was ≥99%, except for IgA (96%).
Conclusion: Sensitivity of anti-SARS-CoV-2 assays was determined by test design, target antigen, antibody avidity, and COVID-19 severity. Sustained antibody detection was mainly determined by avidity progression for RBD and S. Testing by TAb and for S/RBD provided the highest sensitivity and longest detection duration of 14 months so far.
Early and adequate restoration of endothelial and tubular renal function is a substantial step during regeneration after ischemia reperfusion (IR) injury, occurring, e.g., in kidney transplantation, renal surgery, and sepsis. While tubular epithelial cell injury has long been of central importance, recent perception includes the renal vascular endothelium. In this regard, the fibrin cleavage product fibrinopeptide Bβ15-42 mitigate IR injury by stabilizing interendothelial junctions through its affinity to VE-cadherin. Therefore, this study focused on the effect of Bβ15-42 on post-acute physiological renal regeneration. For this, adult male C57BL/6 mice were exposed to a 30 min bilateral renal ischemia and reperfusion for 24 h or 48 h. Animals were randomized in a non-operative control group, two operative groups each treated with i.v. administration of either saline or Bβ15-42 (2.4 mg/kg) immediately prior to reperfusion. Endothelial activation and inflammatory response was attenuated in renal tissue homogenates by single application of Bβ15-42. Meanwhile, Bβ15-42 did not affect acute kidney injury markers. Regarding the angiogenetic players VEGF-A, Angiopoietin-1, Angiopoietin-2, however, we observed significant higher expressions at mRNA and trend to higher protein level in Bβ15-42 treated mice, compared to saline treated mice after 48 h of IR, thus pointing toward an increased angiogenetic activity. Similar dynamics were observed for the intermediate filament vimentin, the cytoprotective protein klotho, stathmin and the proliferation cellular nuclear antigen, which were significantly up-regulated at the same points in time. These results suggest a beneficial effect of anatomical contiguously located endothelial cells on tubular regeneration through stabilization of endothelial integrity. Therefore, it seems that Bβ15-42 represents a novel pharmacological approach in the targeted therapy of acute renal failure in everyday clinical practice.
Endogenous nitro-fatty acids (NFA) are potent electrophilic lipid mediators that exert biological effects in vitro and in vivo via selective covalent modification of thiol-containing target proteins. The cytoprotective, anti-inflammatory, and anti-tumorigenic effects of NFA in animal models of disease caused by targeted protein nitroalkylation are a valuable basis for the development of future anti-phlogistic and anti-neoplastic drugs. Considering the complexity of diseases and accompanying comorbidities there is an urgent need for clinically effective multifunctional drugs. NFA are composed of a fatty acid backbone containing a nitroalkene moiety triggering Michael addition reactions. However, less is known about the target-specific structure–activity relationships and selectivities comparing different NFA targets. Therefore, we analyzed 15 NFA derivatives and compared them with the lead structure 9-nitro-oleic acid (9NOA) in terms of their effect on NF-κB (nuclear factor kappa B) signaling inhibition, induction of Nrf-2 (nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2) gene expression, sEH (soluble epoxide hydrolase), LO (lipoxygenase), and COX-2 (cyclooxygenase-2) inhibition, and their cytotoxic effects on colorectal cancer cells. Minor modifications of the Michael acceptor position and variation of the chain length led to drugs showing increased target preference or enhanced multi-targeting, partly with higher potency than 9NOA. This study is a significant step forward to better understanding the biology of NFA and their enormous potential as scaffolds for designing future anti-inflammatory drugs.
Der COX-2-selektive Inhibitor Celecoxib ist zurzeit das einzigste NSAID, das von der FDA für die adjuvante Therapie von Patienten mit der FAP-Erkrankung zugelassen wurde. Die antineoplastischen Mechanismen dieses Wirkstoffes werden nur teilweise verstanden, jedoch spielen COX-2-abhängige, aber auch COX-2-unabhängige Mechanismen eine wichtige Rolle. Um zu untersuchen, in welchem Ausmaß die antikarzinogenen Effekte von Celecoxib von der COX-2-Expression der Tumor-Zelle abhängig sind, wurden humane Caco-2-Kolonkarzinom-Zellen mit pcDNA-Vektoren transfiziert, in denen die humane COX-2-cDNA sowohl in sense- (hCOX-2-sense), als auch in antisense- (hCOX-2-as) Orientierung einkloniert wurde. Die pcDNA-Kontrollzellen wurde nur mit dem leeren pcDNA-Vektor transfiziert. Caco-hCOX-2-s-Zellen zeigten eine starke Überexpression der COX-2, pcDNA-Kontrollzellen nur eine schwache Expression von COX-2 und hCOX-2-as-Zellen waren COX-2-defizient. Die Behandlung dieser Zellen mit steigenden Konzentrationen an Celecoxib (0-100 µM) führte in Proliferationstests zu einer starken Verminderung der Überlebensrate, die durch die Induktion einer G0/G1-Zellzyklusblockade und durch die Auslösung von Apoptose mit Aktivierung von Caspase-3 und -9 sowie Freisetzung von Cytochrom C charakterisiert ist. Sowohl die Verminderung der Überlebensrate, als auch die Induktion von Apoptose waren in COX-2-defizienten hCOX-2-as-Zellen schwächer ausgeprägt als in COX-2-exprimierenden pcDNA- und hCOX-2-s-Zellen. Im Gegensatz hierzu erfolgte die Induktion der G0/G1-Zellzyklusblockade durch Celecoxib unabhängig vom COX-2-Expressionsstatus der Zellen und war durch einen starken Abfall der Expression von Cyclin A und Cyclin B1 sowie eine Induktion der Zellzyklusinhibitoren p21 und p27 gekennzeichnet. Diese Ergebnisse verdeutlichen, dass die antikarzinogenen Effekte von Celecoxib sowohl über COX-2-abhängige, als auch COX-2-unabhängige Mechanismen erklärt werden können. Zahlreiche Studien konnten zeigen, dass Mutationen im APC- oder Beta-Catenin-Gen eine entscheidende Rolle bei der Entstehung von kolorektalen Polypen und Karzinomen spielen. Weiterhin ist der Beta-Catenin/APC-Signaltransduktionsweg ein wichtiger Regulator von Apoptose und Zellzyklusprogression. Daher wurde im zweiten Teil der vorliegenden Arbeit untersucht, ob Celecoxib einen Einfluss auf den Beta-Catenin/APC-Signaltransduktionsweg in humanen Kolonkarzinom-Zellen besitzt. So wurde nach Behandlung von humanen Caco-2-Zellen mit 100 µM Celecoxib eine schnelle Translokation von Beta-Catenin von seiner überwiegend Membran-assoziierten Lokalisation in das Zytoplasma beobachtet, die durch die Aktivität der GSK-3ß vermittelt wird und somit durch Phosphorylierung von Beta-Catenin stattfinden könnte. Tatsächlich führte die Behandlung von Caco-2-Zellen mit 100 µM Celecoxib bereits nach 2 Stunden Behandlungsdauer zu einer Reduktion des Ser-9-Phosphorylierungsstatus der GSK-3ß und somit zu deren Aktivierung. Die zytosolische Akkumulation von Beta-Catenin war ferner von einem schnellen Anstieg der Beta-Catenin-Spiegel im Zellkern begleitet, der bereits nach 30 Minuten Inkubationsdauer zu beobachten war. Überraschenderweise kam es parallel hierzu zu einem zeitabhängigen Abfall der DNA-Bindungsaktivität von Beta-Catenin. Nach dieser zellulären Reorganisation konnte nach 8 Stunden Behandlungsdauer mit 100 µM Celecoxib ein starker, Proteasom- und Caspase-abhängiger Abbau von Beta-Catenin beobachtet werden. Ein im Vergleich zu Caco-2-Zellen verminderter Beta-Catenin Abbau wurde sowohl in humanen MCF-7-Mammakarzinom-Zellen, die keine funktionale Caspase-3 exprimieren, als auch in humanen HCT-116-Zellen, in denen ein GSK-3ß-abhängiger Abbau von Beta-Catenin aufgrund einer Mutation im Beta-Catenin-Protein nicht stattfindet, beobachtet. Interessanterweise fand ein Abbau von Beta-Catenin weder nach Behandlung der Caco-2-Zellen mit dem stark antikarzinogen wirksamen NSAID R-Fluriprofen, noch mit dem COX-2-selektiven Inhibitor Rofecoxib statt. Die Ergebnisse aus diesem Teil der Arbeit deuten darauf hin, dass der Abbau von Beta-Catenin bei der Auslösung der COX-2-unabhängigen antikarzinogenen Effekte von Celecoxib eine wichtige Rolle spielt. In den letzten Jahren kamen weitere strukturverwandte NSAIDs vom Coxib-Typ auf den Markt, die eine höhere COX-2-Selektivität als Celecoxib besitzen. Die Experimente des dritten Teils dieser Arbeit sollten die Frage klären, ob die antikarzinogene Wirksamkeit einen Klasseneffekt aller Coxibe darstellt, oder nur spezifisch nach Behandlung von Tumor-Zellen mit Celecoxib zu beobachten ist. Mittels Proliferationstests konnte gezeigt werden, dass Celecoxib und Methylcelecoxib (Strukturanalogon von Celecoxib mit schwacher COX-2-inhibitorischer Aktivität) starke wachstumshemmende Effekte (Zellzyklusblockade und Apoptose) in COX-2-überexprimierenden HCA-7-, als auch in COX-2-defizienten HCT-116-Kolon-karzinomzellen verursachen. Unter Behandlung dieser Zellen mit den selektiven COX-2-Inhibitoren Rofecoxib, Etoricoxib, Lumiracoxib und Valdecoxib wurden nur schwache antiproliferative Effekte beobachtet. Die Analyse der Zellzahl in der SubG1-Phase mittels Durchflusszytometrie sowie der Spaltung von PARP mittels Western Blot-Analyse konnte demonstrieren, dass sowohl HCT-116-, als auch HCA-7-Zellen deutlich sensitiver auf die Apoptose-induzierende Wirkung von Methylcelecoxib reagierten als auf Celecoxib. Zudem zeigten COX-2-überexprimierende HCA-7-Zellen nach Behandlung mit Celecoxib und Methylcelecoxib eine höhere Apoptoserate als HCT-116-Zellen, bei denen jedoch die Induktion einer G1-Zellzyklusblockade mit Induktion von p27 und Abbau von Cyclin D1 ausgeprägter als in HCA-7-Zellen war. Eine LC/MS/MS-Analyse der Coxibkonzentrationen in Medium ergab, dass aufgrund der starken Proteinbindungen die freien Coxibkonzentrationen teils deutlich niedriger sind als die totalen eingesetzten Coxibkonzentrationen in Medium mit 10% FCS. Ferner konnte mittels LC/MS/MS demonstriert werden, dass es nach Behandlung von HCT-116- und HCA-7-Zellen mit Celecoxib und Methylcelecoxib zu einer intrazellulären Aufkonzentrierung der Wirkstoffe relativ zur freien Coxibkonzentration im Medium kommt, die nach Behandlung der Zellen mit Rofecoxib, Etoricoxib, Lumiracoxib und Valdecoxib jedoch nicht beobachtet wurde. Die Aufkonzentrierung von Celecoxib in den Kolonkarzinom-Zellen könnte bei der Auslösung der antikarzinogenen Effekte möglicherweise eine Rolle spielen. Die Ergebnisse aus diesem Teil der Arbeit konnten belegen, dass die antiproliferativen Effekte spezifisch und weitgehend COX-2-unabhängig nach Behandlung der Tumor-Zellen mit Celecoxib auftreten und daher keinen Klasseneffekt aller COX-2-selektiven NSAIDs darstellen.
5-Lipoxygenase contributes to PPAR [gamma] activation in macrophages in response to apoptotic cells
(2012)
Background: One hallmark contributing to immune suppression during the late phase of sepsis is macrophage polarization to an anti-inflammatory phenotype upon contact with apoptotic cells (AC). Taking the important role of the nuclear receptor PPARγ for this phenotype switch into consideration, it remains elusive how AC activate PPARγ in macrophages. Therefore, we were interested to characterize the underlying principle.
Methods: Apoptosis was induced by treatment of Jurkat T cells for 3 hours with 0.5 μg/ml staurosporine. Necrotic cells (NC) were prepared by heating cells for 20 minutes to 65°C. PPARγ activation was followed by stably transducing RAW264.7 macrophages with a vector encoding the red fluorescent protein mRuby after PPARγ binding to 4 × PPRE sites downstream of the reporter gene sequence. This readout was established by treatment with the PPARγ agonist rosiglitazone (1 μM) and AC (5:1). Twenty-four hours after stimulation, mRuby expression was analysed by fluorescence microscopy. Lipid rafts of AC, NC, as well as living cells (LC) were enriched by sucrose gradient centrifugation. Fractions were analysed for lipid raft-associated marker proteins. Lipid rafts were incubated with transduced RAW264.7 macrophages as described above. 5-Lipoxygenase (5-LO) involvement was verified by pharmacological inhibition (MK-866, 1 μM) and overexpression.
Results: Assuming that the molecule responsible for PPARγ activation in macrophages is localized in the cell membrane of AC, most probably associated to lipid rafts, we isolated lipid rafts from AC, NC and LC. Mass spectrometric analysis of lipid rafts of AC showed the expression of 5-LO, whereas lipid rafts of LC did not. Moreover, incubating macrophages with lipid rafts of AC induced mRuby expression. In contrast, lipid rafts of NC and LC did not. To verify the involvement of 5-LO in activating PPARγ in macrophages, Jurkat T cells were incubated for 30 minutes with the 5-LO inhibitor MK-866 (1 μM) before apoptosis induction. In line with our hypothesis, these AC did not induce mRuby expression. Finally, although living Jurkat T cells overexpressing 5-LO did not activate PPARγ in macrophages, mRuby expression was significantly increased when AC were generated from 5-LO overexpressing compared with wild-type Jurkat cells.
Conclusion: Our results suggest that induction of apoptosis activates 5-LO, localizing to lipid rafts, necessary for PPARγ activation in macrophages. Therefore, it will be challenging to determine whether 5-LO activity in AC, generated from other cell types, correlates with PPARγ activation, contributing to an immune-suppressed phenotype in macrophages.
Cysteinyl leukotriene receptor 1 antagonists (CysLT1RA) are frequently used as add-on medication for the treatment of asthma. Recently, these compounds have shown protective effects in cardiovascular diseases. This prompted us to investigate their influence on soluble epoxide hydrolase (sEH) and peroxisome proliferator activated receptor (PPAR) activities, two targets known to play an important role in CVD and the metabolic syndrome. Montelukast, pranlukast and zafirlukast inhibited human sEH with IC50 values of 1.9, 14.1, and 0.8 μM, respectively. In contrast, only montelukast and zafirlukast activated PPARγ in the reporter gene assay with EC50 values of 1.17 μM (21.9% max. activation) and 2.49 μM (148% max. activation), respectively. PPARα and δ were not affected by any of the compounds. The activation of PPARγ was further investigated in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Analysis of lipid accumulation, mRNA and protein expression of target genes as well as PPARγ phosphorylation revealed that montelukast was not able to induce adipocyte differentiation. In contrast, zafirlukast triggered moderate lipid accumulation compared to rosiglitazone and upregulated PPARγ target genes. In addition, we found that montelukast and zafirlukast display antagonistic activities concerning recruitment of the PPARγ cofactor CBP upon ligand binding suggesting that both compounds act as PPARγ modulators. In addition, zafirlukast impaired the TNFα triggered phosphorylation of PPARγ2 on serine 273. Thus, zafirlukast is a novel dual sEH/PPARγ modulator representing an excellent starting point for the further development of this compound class.
