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The historian has to safeguard the strangeness of the past. Therefore, religio-historical research has to scrutinise the reconstruction of the real history of religions by religious ideologies of the present. Very often religious ideologies fall back to the past in order to get an alleged legitimacy for their actual am-bitions; however, for that purpose they have to model or falsify the past according to their present ideo-logical needs. One of the outstanding examples of such an ideologisation of history of religion is the modern view of Buddhism. Developed by the Western colonialist Indology this ideology portrayed and still is portray-ing Buddhism as an rationalist-atheistic, anti-brahmanical, anti-caste and egalitarian religion - in con-trast to Hinduism which is caricatured as idolatrous, casteistic and brahmanised. The aim of such an ideological interpretation is to demonstrate the alleged Western modernity of Buddhism and the alleged obscurantism of Hinduism. The target of that ideological aggression was the Hinduism. In order to exploit the wealth of India the Western colonialists needed the weakening of the Hindu self-consciousness; therefore they favoured an Indology which produced an not existing Indian Buddhism as an alleged modern alternative to the alleged primitive religion of the 'Hindoos'. Playing the Buddhism against the 'Hindoos' the colonialist attempt to defame the vast majority of the Indian people was very successful. Even Indian religious intellectuals and leaders (i.e. the secularists or the Neo-Buddhists1) are sharing and supporting that colonialist view still today. We want to dispute these asserted positions by empirico-historical reasons. First we will discuss the early Buddhism, than Ashoka's reform program of the dharma and at last the historio-graphical dilemmata of scholars sharing the colonialist ideology of Buddhism. ....
Die vor Ausrufung der Republik in der Türkei beginnende Geschichte der Säkularisierung bzw. des Laizismus kann auch als die Geschichte der Verwestlichung der türkischen Gesellschaft verstanden werden. Die mit der Säkularisierung einhergehenden Reformen betrafen zunächst das Militärwesen, wies dieses doch die größten Schwächen auf. Sie erstreckten sich im weiteren aber auch auf die Wirtschaft, das Regierungssystem und die Gesellschaft im allgemeinen. Während dieser vorrepublikanischen Phase war die Auseinandersetzung mit der andersartigen westlichen Weltanschauung und Denkweise unvermeidlich. Der bis in das 18. Jahrhundert zurück zu verfolgende Verwestlichungsprozeß wurde bereits in vielerlei Hinsicht untersucht. In der vorrepublikanischen Phase existierten nicht nur die konventionellen islamischen Anschauungen über Religion, sondern auch schon solche der neuen Weltanschauung, für die die Religion nicht dem mehr als selbstverständliche Grundlage menschlichen Denkens galt. Sie stellte vielmehr neu die Frage, was denn unter Religion überhaupt zu verstehen sei.
Hindus in Deutschland
(2002)
Der Hinduismus galt in Deutschland in erster Linie als eine akademische oder exotische Angelegenheit. Die altindische Philologie hat ihn in einer mehr archaischen Gestalt bekannt gemacht, zugleich aber auch religiös neutralisiert. Diese Rezeption der Hindu Religiosität hat dann zu dem geführt, was man westliche Hinduismusideologie bezeichnen könnte. Aus dem Gefühl der globalen Überlegenheit heraus sah man den Hinduismus gleichsam als eine exotisch-buntscheckige Kuh an, die keine heute verwertbare Milch mehr liefert. Ihn für das tatsächliche Leben und dessen kulturellreligiöse Ausgestaltung zu verwenden, konnte und wollte ein sog. aufgeklärter Bürger nicht wagen. In existentieller Hinsicht war das Hindutum tabu. Erst der systematische Theologe Rudolf Otto hat in einer Phase des 20. Jahrhunderts, in dem die religiöse Intoleranz ganz besonders und gerade auch theologisch triumphierte, auf Grund persönlicher Erfahrung die reale religiöse Relevanz des Hindutums unüberhörbar zur Sprache gebracht. Indem er sich der existentiellen Konfrontation mit dem Hindutum stellte, entdeckte er als Angehöriger der westlichen Kultur dessen Wahrheitswürde. Er konnte den Hinduismus nicht mehr als bloß historisch interessantes, aber erledigtes Phänomen der menschlichen Geistesgeschichte betrachten und im übrigen zur christlichen Tagesordnung übergehen. Seine existentielle Erfahrung ließ ihm keine andere Wahl: Der Hinduismus ist eine gewaltige Symbolik des Heiligen. ...
I would like to begin my presentation with the quotation of the first sentence of Shafii’s Trea-tise er-Risala, the first work which has been reached us until now, concerning foundation of Islamic jurisprudence. “Praise be to God gratitude for one of His favors can only be paid through another favor of him. And this favor generates favor to be bestowed, wherefore, one should feel obliged continuously to pay gratitude to God for each favor.” It is possible to conceive that Mercy (al-Rahma), the common expression of all favors granted by the Almighty Creature of human beings, has two salient characteristics: one is vertical that is with regard to the Creator and creatures, and the other is horizontal that is concerning hu-man relations among themselves as well as with other creatures. When the concept of Mercy is evaluated in perspective of God-human being relations in the existing world, it indicates that God’s favors, without discrimination, are granted to all human beings. ...
Aus der bedingungslosen Mutterliebe Allahs gegenüber seinen Geschöpfen resultiert die bedingungslose Mutterliebe der Menschen gegenüber dem Nächsten, insb. dem Bedürftigen. Diese folgt als logische Notwendigkeit aus dem Glauben an Allahs unbedingte Gnade. Diakonie ist daher nach der Gnadenbotschaft Mohammeds kein sündentilgendes Werk, sondern ein Handeln aus dem Glauben an Allahs Werk, seiner freien Sündenvergebung. So wie Allah seine Sündenvergebung nicht an das Werk des Menschen bindet, so bindet der glaubende Mensch sein Werk der Barmherzigkeit nicht an das vergeltende Handeln des Bedürftigen. Er schenkt, weil er beschenkt worden ist. Diakonie wie Nächstenliebe allgemein wird somit zum Spiel, einer Handlung, die sich in sich selbst erschöpft und sich an sich selbst erfreut. Denn Allahs Handeln, seine jede Gerechtigkeit mit Füßen tretende Gnade, ist nichts als ein Gottesspiel. Indem die Menschen auf Allahs Spiel der Sündenvergebung vertrauen, werden sie zu Mitspie-lern Gottes.
As for the relation between Islam and pluralism, it seems a little bit complicated. There are some verses in The Koran for pluralism and at the same time we have some verses against. Among the sayings of Prophet Muhammad like the some Koranic verses, we came across with something good and bad for non-Muslims in special contexts. By another saying, we find both positive and negative statements for Jews and Christians in different circumstances. Muslim scholars the complexity still exists. We find both positive and negative stances. So it is difficult to see a standard or official view on this issue. However, we should point out that Islam recognizes all the sacred (Semitic) books and their messages. It accepts all prophets of that traditions. It defines itself as the last and perfect religion of Semitic tradition and states that no other religion will be accepted from anybody else other then itself. It criticizes both the Jews and Christians especially about their failure to uphold the Oneness of God, tawhid, and to preserve the authenticity of their scripture from interventions. This exclusivist aspect of Islam as many conservative scholars formed with putting together some evidences from the Koran is generally accepted by Muslims.
Religious Anthropology studies the origins, evolution and functions of religions. The discipline researching religious beliefs and rituals comparatively with cross-cultural perspectives tries to enlighten the belief world of the mankind. Religion, as a term, can be defined as "believing as well as worshipping to the supernatural powers and/or beings by the individual who are emotionally or consciously devoted to them" (Örnek 1988: 127). There have been a number of theories so far which try to bring an explanation to the origins and the evolution of religion. In these theories, Fetishism, cults of nature, animism, Totemism, dynamism, Manism, magic, polytheism, monotheism as well as certain physiological phenomena have been particularized as evolutionary stages and forms of belief (Evans-Pritchard 1998: 124). All of these theories have the perspective of so called "progressive" and / or "unilinear" that maintain a religion which has reached ongoing stages and that communities which have developed from primitiveness to civilization. They argue that there has only been one single line of progress, and all of the communities are bound to go through the same evolutionary stages.
Untouchability and inter-caste relations in rural India : the case of southern Tamil villages
(2004)
Justice and equality are the two subjects often talked about by most of the nationalists and leaders of various political and ideological streams across the world including India. India was at the fore-front in condemning racial discrimination particularly apartheid and also the influence of super powers) on the internal affairs of independent nations. Her commitment to secure its citizens' freedom, justice, equality and fraternity is reflected in the very preamble of the Indian Constitution. Towards achieving these challenging goals, special provisions have also been made in the Constitution to protect and promote the interests of the most oppressed section of Indian society - traditionally known as Untouchables and Constitutionally as the Scheduled Castes. These provisions are expected to alter the given unjust distribution of power (political and economic) and status (social) among different sections of people and thereby transform India into an egalitarian society. Given India's unequivocal commitment to secure its citizens these noble ideals - particularly the most exploited and pilloried section of India -, we shall attempt here to understand Indian villages, which host over 80 per cent of the Indian population, from the point of view of whether or not these villages patronise the institution of caste which is in contravention of these ideals or whether there are these little republics ideal for realising the said goals and thus to be preserved as they are as claimed by many social reformers including Mahatma Gandhi. In the process, we shall also address the question of how caste has remained unchanged, how it controls social interaction between higher and lower caste groups and accordingly perpetuates unequal control over power and status. And most importantly we shall also understand whether all the Scheduled Castes (lower castes) treat their members as equals or there is hierarchy, discrimination and practice of untouchability even among them.
The Dalai Lama, in exile since 1959 in Hindu majority India, has continuously been taking a firm stand on giving importance to an inter-religious dialogue and interaction. He has made it absolutely clear that Buddhism represents just one of the many religious ways open for mankind. Nonetheless, he has always referred to the bond shared between Buddhism and Hinduism as a very special one and has experienced it as a religious tie. Both these religious streams belong to what is known as Bharatiya or Indo-genous Dharma. The Dalai Lama does not restrict his care for nurturing this common bond to a mere academic talk. In fact he has been taking active part in promoting this kind of inter-religious dialogue and has been showing a fiery political commitment as well. He thus took active part in the second World Hindu Congress organized by the Vishwa Hindu Parishad held in Prayag-Allahabad in the year 1979. According to official reports, the organizers in their welcome speech for the Dalai Lama were frank enough to admit that 2500 years ago, the Kashi Pandits (Kashi also known as Varanasi) had stopped Siddharta Gautama Buddha from entering the Vishwanath temple. It was also mentioned that for all these years, there has never been any letup in the conflict between Sanatani Hindus and Bauddhas, despite the fact that later on Shakya Muni was rewarded the status of avatara by Hindus. The fact that these very Kashi Pandits had invite one of the highest religious authorities of Buddhism - the Dalai Lama- to this congress should be seen as "a positive step towards reconciliation." The Dalai Lama was thus pleasantly surprised to see that the highest rung of the religious body of Hindus publicly acknowledged the divine status of Siddharta Gautama Buddha and recognized the presence of the Dalai Lama as a valuable contribution towards the reconciliation between the two religious streams. ...
Die Heilige Schrift der Gemeinde der Sikh ist Adi Sri Guru Grantha Sahibaji oder „der am Anfang stehende Guru in Gestalt des Buches". Guru Govind Singh (1675-1708) setzte kurz vor seinem Tod eine erweiterte Fassung des Adi Grantha als seinen Nachfolger im Guruamt ein. Der Adi Grantha ist ein poetisches Werk, das keinerlei Prosa enthält. Autoren der verschiedenen Teile der Schrift gehörten nur zum Teil der Sikh-Gemeinde an: Guru Nanak, der Gründer der Religion der Sikh, sowie seine Nachfolger Angad, Amar Das, Ram Das, Arun, Teg Bahadur und Govind Singh. Aus anderen Religionen stammen die sogenannten Bhagats (Fromme) wie der islamische Sufi Kabir, ein Weber von Beruf, oder der hochberühmte Krishnadichter Sur Das. Schließlich zählen noch einige Bhatts oder Barden wie Haribans oder Ganga zu den Mitverfassern. Zu dieser multireligösen Verfasserschaft tritt als weitere Besonderheit dieser Heiligen Schrift ihre Vielsprachigkeit. Der Urtext des Adi Grantha ist in seinen verschiedenen Teilen in unterschiedlichen Sprachen und Dialekten abgefaßt (Hindi Sanskrit, Marathi, Persisch, Arabisch usw.). Zwar waren Guru Nanak und seine Nachfolger Panjabi; dennoch sprachen sie ein Idiom, das nach E. Trumpp eine Mischung aus Hindi und Panjabi war. Guru Govind Singh jedoch schrieb in reinem Hindi. Das Alphabet des Adi Grantha ist das Gurmukhi, eine Schrift, die Guru Nanak für die Abfassung seines Schriftteils entwickelt haben soll. Der Adi Grantha setzt sich aus liturgischen Gebrauchstexten, aus Psalmen und Preisgesängen zusammen.