590 Tiere (Zoologie)
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Beschreibung der Arten: Trechus (Anophthalmus Strm.) vranensis n. sp. Lathrobium (Glyptomerus Müll.) Wingelmülleri n. sp.
Descriptions of new Coleoptera from Madagasar, recently added to the British Museum Collection
(1878)
1. In investigating a spontaneous epidemic disease of rabbits, a micro-organism was isolated in pure cultures which reproduced the characteristic lesions of the natural disease.
2. The bacteriological characters of this bacillus are described and the impossibility of identifying it with previously recorded organisms justifies its being considered a new species. The name Bacterium monocytogenes is proposed.
3. Animal passage raised "virulence" when the doses were well chosen, and increased virulence accentuated the production of necrotic lesions. Overwhelming doses of culture resulted in lowering of "virulence" by animal passage.
4. Bacterium monocytogenes, in doses less than the M.L.D., produced in the circulating blood of rabbits an extreme monocytosis. The responses of the other white cells. were either transient or inconstant.
5. Repeated doses of the organism became progressively less effective as stimuli to large mononuclear production.
6. The cell content of the thoracic duct did not reflect the high degree of monocytosis in the circulating blood.
7. On intrapleural injection of peptone broth and B. coli, the cells of the resultant exudate were primarily polymorphonuclears, even though the circulating blood showed a high monocytosis. With intrapleural injection of B. monocytogenes, when the blood stream was rich in large mononuclears, a pleural exudate containing 30 per cent of these cells was obtained.
8. Phagocytosis experiments in vitro showed that the large mononuclears, while they phagocyted B. coli indifferently, took up B. monocytogenes with an avidity in all respects equal to that of the polymorphonuclear neutrophiles.
The study of rich material of Pterophoridae from Siberia and the Russian Far East revealed 96 species to inhabit these regions. 24 of them are reported for the first time from Asian Russia and 11 species and 2 genera (Sibiretta gen. nov. and Septuaginta gen. nov.) are described as new. Furthermore the genus Snellenia gen. nov. is described and isolated from the genus Stenoptilia, and previously unknown females are described for three species.
The morphology of the skeletal portions of the sting apparatus is described and compared in 63 genera of myrmicine ants in order to evaluate its taxonomic potential in this difficult subfamily. The survey covers about half of the myrmicine genera, and an but 3 small tribes (Ochetomyrmecini, Melissotarsini, Stegomyrmicini). Interspecific variation in the apparatus is described in a third of the genera examined. In addition, the sting apparatus of the primitive ponerine ant, Amblyopone pallipes is described for comparison with the primitive myrmicines; and the sting associated glands (poison gland, Dufour's gland) are illustrated for single species of Amblyopone, Basiceros, Monomorium, Aphaenogaster, Crematogasier, and Zacryptocerus.
Essai d'une révision des espèces européennes & circaméditerranéennes de la famille des Lampyrides
(1884)
The Indian Hill Mynah (Gracula religiosa) was studied in the field in Assam in north-east India. The aims of the study were two-fold: (i) to understand better this bird's exceptional ability in captivity to imitate human speech; and (ii) to provide background understanding to studies of the importance of early auditory experience and of vocal imitation in the development of normal song patterns in birds. First is given a brief description of the distribution, general behaviour, and breeding biology of this arboreal, sexually isomorphic, semi-gregarious species. The remainder of the monograph deals with vocalizations; these were either tape-recorded in the field, or transcribed directly using a written notation developed for the purpose. Any wild adult Mynah of either sex possesses four categories of vocalizations: (i) 'Chip-call'; a loud piercing squeak made in contexts which include alarm. (ii) 'Um-sound'; a soft grunt, acting in close range social contexts, and (like chip-calls) common to all individuals. (iii) 'Whisper-whistles': several soft sounds of types unique to the individual. (iv) 'Calls': several loud noises, of extremely varied patterns. The bulk of the monograph deals with 'calls', as defined thus. Calls were compared quantitatively with one another by a method developed which measured the degree of overlap of one sonogram with a tracing of a second sonogram. Both by this method and by ear, calls were divided into discrete types, without intermediates. Birds of either sex have a repertoire of usually between five and twelve such call types, some of which are produced much more commonly than others. Repertoires tend to be larger in birds which call more frequently, or which have mates with large repertoires. The repertoire of a given bird stays largely constant from year to year in size. composition, and proportions. No bird shares any of its call types with its mate, but it shares several of them with near neighbours of the same sex. There is a progressive change of dialect with distance, such that birds nesting more than about 14 km apart have no call types in common. No general characteristics of call structure could be found which were indicative of the sex of the caller, but in a known locality the call type made immediately reveals the sex of the bird producing it. Call types are learnt by selective imitation of neighbouring individuals during a young bird's first several months. A call type common in the repertoire of one bird tends also to be common in the repertoire of a neighbour, except at the edge of the limited range of that call type. Which particular call type a calling bird selects from among those in its repertoire is discussed. Few call types could be related to non-auditory contexts. A bird is likely to repeat the call type last made, and also tends to standardize the order in which it produces its different call types; this standard order tends to be the same as that of its neighbours. A birdtends also to reply at once and to standardize the call type it makes in immediate reply to a particular call type of its mate; again, neighbouring pairs of birds tend to use the same standardized call and reply types. The length of the interval between a particular call and its reply tends to be constant in a given pair of birds, and approximately the same in neighbouring pairs. These are all further aspects of extensive but selective vocal imitation by Mynahs of adult birds; other species are not imitated. Information on calling when in contact with other pairs came mainly from playback experiments, when single calls were presented to nesting pairs of Mynahs. Response strength was measured by the incidence of flight, number of subsequent vocalizations, latency of response, and proportion of playbacks ignored. When presented with playbacks of calls of familiar types (of neighbours) and of unknown types (of strangers), birds responded more strongly to the familiar than to the unknown call types. They did, however, respond somewhat to the unknown call types, which were of patterns never previously heard by them, presumably recognizing these as being Mynah calls by their sound quality. Mynahs responded as strongly to playbacks of neighbours' calls which were not in their own repertoire as to playbacks of neighbours' calls which were. A bird tends to match at once the call last heard (either from a tape recorder or from a wild neighbour), itself producing the same call type at once, if it possesses it in its own repertoire. That call type, and others associated with it, also occurs more frequently thereafter. Thus calls heard affect calls made, and vice-versa since other individuals nearby behave similarly. A change of nearest neighbours in successive years was shown to affect one pair's repertoire proportions. Further playback experiments showed that Mynahs were able to distinguish between a single call made by their neighbours and a single call of the same call type made by their mates. Small but consistent differences were found in the sonograms of such calls of the same type made by different birds. The structure of a single call type may change gradually with distance. The development of vocalizations with age is briefly described. In the final discussion sections, the ways in which, and the extent to which, Mynahs are able to determine the species, home locality, sex and individual identity of other Mynahs are outlined. There follow consideration, and comparison with other species: (i) of various aspects of repertoires; (ii) of the distribution of call types among different individuals; (iii) of the dynamic aspects of calling, and a scheme is proposed which accounts for the selection for utterance of a particular call type from the repertoire; and (iv) of the organization and coordination of calling. The lack of imitation of other species in the wild is discussed, and contrasted with the several ways in which wild Mynahs imitate one another in various aspects of their calling.
Beitrag zur Käferfauna Griechenlands : sechstes Stück: Malacodermata, Cleridae, Ptinidae, Anobiadae
(1859)
Fauna of the Chilka Lake : the Polyzoa of the lake and of brackish water in the Gangetic Delta
(1915)
Eight species of Polyzoa ilave been found in brackish water on the coasts of India, but of these only three occur, so far as we know, in the Chilka Lake. A fourth was abundant some years ago in small pools of brackish water near its inner.shore, but has now disappeared and has not been taken in the lake itself. A list of the eight species will be found in the Table of Contents on the opposite page. One half of these species are apparently endemic in estuarine tracts, maritime swamps and lagoons in India, while the other half are cosmopolitan or at any rate very widely distributed. The two series may be tabulated thus:· ENDEMIC INDIAN SPECIES. Membranipora bengalensis, Victorella bengalensis, Loxosomatoides colonialis, Loxosomatoides laevis. WIDELY DISTRIBUTED SPECIES. Membranipora hippopus, Bowerbankia caudata, Alcyonidium mytili, Barentsia discreta. ...
The Polyzoa discussed or described in this paper are all from fresh or brackish water. The majority are from the Tale Sap in the north-eastern part of the Malay Peninsula} but a few come from the Tai-Hu in the Kiangsu Province of China. I have also included notes on one Indian form. The following species are to be considered: ENTOPROCTA. Chitaspis athleticus, gen. et sp. nov., from the Tale Sap. CTENOSTOMATA. Alcyonidium mytili, Dalyell, from Indian estuaries, etc. Triticella pediceltata (Alder), from the Tale Sap. Bowerbankiacaudata, Hincks, from the Tale Sap and Perak. Paludicella elongata, Leidy, from the Tai-Hu. Paludicella pentagonalis, sp. nov., from the Tale Sap. Victorelta bengalensis, Annandale, from the Tale Sap. Hislopia cambodgiensis (Jullien), from the Tai-Hu. Hislopia malayensis. sp. nov., from Jalor in the Malay Peninsula. It will be as well to defer consideration of the biology and distribution of these species until I have been able to deal systematically with the Phylactolaemata and Cheilostomata collected on my tour. All that need be said here is that while the species of Paludicella and Hislopia are from fresh water, the others. on the list are from brackish water.
A considerable change has taken place in the Polyzoa of the ponds this winter, apparently owing to last summer's floods, which broke down the embankment that separated the ponds from the river, joining thelll together temporarily. It will, therefore, be well to publish the observations arising from. a visit to Port Canning in December, 1907, both as regards the species already recorded and as regards a new genus that appears to have been introduced since last winter. A con1parison with European specimens, moreover, has also made it necessary to recognize the Bengal Victorella as a distinct species.
Hatten Sie schon einmal die Gelegenheit, Fledermäuse an einem warmen Abend bei der Vorführung ihrer Flugkünste zu beobachten? Es ist einfach faszinierend, wie diese kleinen Säugetiere mit ihren unglaublichen Sinnes- und Flugleistungen feinsten Hindernissen ausweichen, allerkleinste Insekten orten und in akrobatischen Flugmanövern erbeuten. Durch ihre nächtliche Lebensweise sind sie dem Menschen eher verborgen und unbekannt geblieben. Der geräuschlose Flug und das Vermögen, sich bei Dunkelheit sicher zu orientieren, sind weitere Eigenschaften, die für den einen erstaunlich, für den anderen unglaublich, ja sogar unheimlich sind. Früher wurden diese fliegenden Säugetiere deshalb mit Dämonen und Zauberei in Zusammenhang gebracht. Unsere heimischen Fledermäuse haben damit nichts gemein. Im Gegenteil – da sie sich ausschließlich von Insekten und anderen Gliedertieren ernähren, stehen sie sogar in unserem Dienst, denn viele der in der Dunkelheit fliegenden Insekten sind in der Land- und Forstwirtschaft nicht gern gesehen und den Menschen häufig lästig. Da die meisten der insektenfangenden Vögel nur bei Tage jagen, bleiben die Nachtinsekten von ihnen so gut wie verschont. Durch die nächtliche Jagd füllen die Fledermäuse diese „Lücke“ im Haushalt der Natur. In Baden-Württemberg gelten insgesamt 23 Fledermausarten als heimisch. Die Nymphenfledermaus als 23. Art wurde erst 2005 entdeckt. Derzeit sind von 19 Arten Fortpflanzungsvorkommen bekannt. Viele sind als sehr selten einzustufen. Innerhalb der letzten rund 50 Jahre sind die Fledermausbestände bei uns zum Teil dramatisch zurückgegangen – und dies, obwohl alle 23 Arten unter Naturschutz stehen. Dieses Heft möchte Ihnen die Lebensweise der Fledermäuse näher bringen und Schutzmöglichkeiten zu einer langfristigen Sicherung der Fledermausbestände erläutern.
Welche Tiere und Pflanzen es auf unserer Erde überhaupt gibt und wie sie verbreitet sind, ist eine der Kardinalfragen biologischer Grundlagenforschung. Diese Erkenntnis hat sich gerade in den letzten Jahren auch in der Öffentlichkeit durchgesetzt und Biodiversität ist schon fast ein Modewort geworden. Die ungeheure Artenvielfalt der Insekten und hier auch ganz besonders der Käfer kann ohne die Mithilfe der sogenannten Liebhaber oder Amateure nicht erfasst werden. Solche Liebhaber sind eben nicht verschrobene Gestalten, die mit Schmetterlingsnetz und Botanisiertrommel durch Wald und Wiese streifen, sondern sie sind unverzichtbare Grundlagenforscher, die die Basis schaffen für alle weiterführenden biologischen Untersuchungen, wie beispielsweise über Bestandsveränderungen, Vergleich von Ökosystemen oder praktische Naturschutzarbeit. Dass dem so ist, haben Jürgen Frank und Eberhard Konzelmann mit dem vorliegenden Grundlagenwerk über die Käfer Baden-Württembergs eindruckvoll und beispielhaft bestätigt. Die Käfer sind eine der größten Organismen-Gruppen, die wir auf unserem Planeten kennen und sie besitzen eine große ökologische Plastizität in allen terrestrischen Lebensräumen, nur im Meer fehlen sie. Damit besitzen sie auch eine gute Indikatorfunktion und die Untersuchung der Käfergemeinschaften lässt auch Rückschlüsse auf andere Tier- und Pflanzengruppen zu. Das neue Verzeichnis belegt den aktuellen Bestand von rund 4800 Käferarten in Baden-Württemberg auf der Basis abgesicherter und nachprüfbarer Fundnachweise in den letzten 50 Jahren. Das sind mehr als 3/4 aller in Deutschland vorkommenden Arten. Die Arten werden nicht nur aufgelistet, sondern es wird die genaue Anzahl der Funde in den großen Naturräumen des Landes (Rheinebene, Schwarzwald, Neckarland, Schwäbische Alb und Oberschwaben) differenziert dokumentiert.
Die vorliegende Veröffentlichung umfasst zwei Grundbausteine. Zum einen die offizielle Rote Liste mit Nennung der Gefährdungskategorien, zum anderen ein revidiertes systematisches Gesamtartenverzeichnis der Mollusken Baden-Württembergs. Die Rote Liste dient zum schnellen Feststellen der jeweiligen Gefährdungskategorien der einzelnen Arten in Baden-Württemberg und ist wie üblich alphabetisch nach Gattungen geordnet. Sehr großer Wert wurde auf die sorgfältige Analyse der Ergebnisse gelegt (Kapitel 7). Das Gesamtartenverzeichnis dient der aktuellen systematischen Einordnung aller Arten, weshalb hier die Taxa im Kontext des wissenschaftlichen Systems der Mollusken aufgeführt werden. Im systematischen Artenverzeichnis soll der momentane Kenntnisstand über die Mollusken Baden-Württembergs in knapper Darstellung zum Ausdruck kommen. Hier sind auch die bekannten Unterarten aufgeführt und es werden zusätzliche Informationen zum Verbreitungstyp, zur Verbreitung (Vorkommen in den Naturräumen 3. Ordnung) sowie zur Ökologie (Zuordnung einzelner Arten zu bestimmten Biotoptypen) gegeben. Mit diesen Zusatzinformationen werden Rote Listen und Artenverzeichnisse zu Gradmessern der Biodiversitätsforschung. In über 130 ‚Anmerkungen‘ werden die entsprechenden Angaben zur Systematik, Verbreitung und Ökologie präzisiert und es wird auf die hierfür zu Grunde liegende Literatur verwiesen. Alle Angaben der Roten Liste sind auch im ausführlichen systematischen Artenverzeichnis enthalten. In beiden Listen sind die Arten mit ihrer laufenden Nummer aufgeführt. Damit ist ein problemloser Wechsel von der Roten Liste zu den Angaben im systematischen Artenverzeichnis gewährleistet. Der Forschungsstand findet sich vielfach in der historischen Literatur, die deshalb eine sorgfältige und kritische Berücksichtigung erfuhr (siehe Anmerkungen und Literaturverzeichnis). Einen unschätzbaren Wert haben in diesem Zusammenhang die zahlreichen Veröffentlichungen David Geyer‘s, die den Beginn der modernen Regionalfaunisik in Baden-Württemberg kennzeichnen. Ein eigenes Kapitel zur Forschungsgeschichte hätte jedoch den vorgegebenen Rahmen dieser Arbeit gesprengt.
In der jüngsten Vergangenheit hat die Anwendung der inzwischen veralteten Liste zunehmend Probleme bereitet und zwar nicht nur im Zusammenhang mit der Begründung von Naturschutzmaßnahmen, sondern auch bei Bewertungen von Flächen z.B. im Rahmen von Umweltverträglichkeitsstudien und Eingriffsplanungen. Die Diskrepanz zwischen einer früheren Rote-Liste-Einstufung und der heutigen, auf erweiterten Erkenntnissen beruhenden Bewertung der Bestandssituation bestimmter Arten muss unweigerlich zu falschen Schlüssen hinsichtlich der Wertigkeit der zu beurteilenden Flächen führen (vgl. WESTRICH & SCHWENNINGER 1997). Es war deshalb sehr zu begrüßen, dass die Landesanstalt für Umweltschutz Karlsruhe eine Neubearbeitung ermöglicht hat. Dabei sollte gleichzeitig auch den zwischenzeitlich vom Bundesamt für Naturschutz modifizierten Gefährdungskategorien und -kriterien Rechnung getragen und die Fülle an neuen wissenschaftlichen Erkenntnissen integriert werden. Diese waren, soweit möglich, bereits in der Roten Liste der Bienen Deutschlands (WESTRICH et al. 1998) berücksichtigt worden. Da eine Rote Liste stets das im Bezugsraum nachgewiesene Artenspektrum zur Grundlage haben muss, war es erforderlich, auch die Faunenliste im Vorfeld zu aktualisieren, zumal seit dem Erscheinen des Grundlagenwerks zahlreiche Arten erstmals in Baden-Württemberg aufgefunden werden konnten.
In Baden-Württemberg sind in dem 30-jährigen Zeitraum einschließlich dervorliegenden insgesamt fünf Fassungen der Roten Liste der gefährdeten Vogelarten erschienen, die jeweils auf den neuesten Stand der Erforschung der Vogelwelt Baden-Württembergs gebracht wurden. Die einzelnen Fassungen der Roten Liste sind 1973 (1. Fassung, Berthold, Ertel & Hölzinger 1974, 1975), 1977 (2. Fassung, Berthold, Ertel, Hölzinger, Kalchreuter & Ruge 1977), 1981 (3. Fassung, Hölzinger, Berthold, Kroymann & Ruge 1981), 1996 (4. Fassung, Hölzinger, Berthold, König & Mahler 1996) und 2007 (5., vorliegende Fassung) herausgegeben worden. In diesem über 30-jährigen Zeitraum wurden die Kriterien für die Roten Listen entsprechend dem Fortschritt der ornithologischen Forschung zunehmend mehr auf quantitative Grundlagen gestellt. Die Roten Listen waren und sind das Ergebnis systematischer und programmatisch orientierter Bestandsaufnahmen der Vogelwelt abseits emotionaler und naturschutzpolitischer Beurteilung.
Mammalian retinae have rod photoreceptors for night vision and cone photoreceptors for daylight and colour vision. For colour discrimination, most mammals possess two cone populations with two visual pigments (opsins) that have absorption maxima at short wavelengths (blue or ultraviolet light) and long wavelengths (green or red light). Microchiropteran bats, which use echolocation to navigate and forage in complete darkness, have long been considered to have pure rod retinae. Here we use opsin immunohistochemistry to show that two phyllostomid microbats, Glossophaga soricina and Carollia perspicillata, possess a significant population of cones and express two cone opsins, a shortwave-sensitive (S) opsin and a longwave-sensitive (L) opsin. A substantial population of cones expresses S opsin exclusively, whereas the other cones mostly coexpress L and S opsin. S opsin gene analysis suggests ultraviolet (UV, wavelengths <400 nm) sensitivity, and corneal electroretinogram recordings reveal an elevated sensitivity to UV light which is mediated by an S cone visual pigment. Therefore bats have retained the ancestral UV tuning of the S cone pigment. We conclude that bats have the prerequisite for daylight vision, dichromatic colour vision, and UV vision. For bats, the UV-sensitive cones may be advantageous for visual orientation at twilight, predator avoidance, and detection of UV-reflecting flowers for those that feed on nectar.
Mémoire sur plusieurs animaux de la Nouvelle-Hollande dont la description n'a pas encore été publiée
(1804)
Leistus elegans n. sp.
(1891)
Die vorliegende Rote Liste sowie das Artenverzeichnis der Köcherfliegen (Trichoptera) Baden-Württembergs basieren im Wesentlichen auf den Ergebnissen einer seit 1993 im Auftrag der Landesanstalt für Umweltschutz Baden-Württemberg durchgeführten landesweiten Erfassung der Köcherfliegenfauna sowie einer umfangreichen Literaturrecherche. Die Einstufung in die Gefährdungskategorien der Roten Liste ist damit das Resultat einer Bewertung der Bestandssituation der in Baden-Württemberg vorkommenden Köcherfliegenarten.
Vor über 10 Jahren wurde die erste Fassung einer Roten Liste und Checkliste gefährdeter Laufkäferarten Baden-Württembergs publiziert (TRAUTNER 1992), eine zweite Fassung, getrennt in Rote Liste und Artenverzeichnis, folgte 1996 (TRAUTNER 1996a, TRAUTNER & BRÄUNICKE 1996). Seit dieser Zeit hat sich der Kenntnisstand zu Verbreitung, Habitatansprüchen und Gefährdungssituation der Laufkäferarten in Baden-Württemberg wesentlich verbessert. Eine Neufassung der Roten Liste als wichtiges Instrument für die Praxis in Naturschutz und Landschaftsplanung war daher dringend erforderlich.
Schwebfliegen kommen in großer Zahl in fast allen terrestrischen Lebensräumen vor. Dennoch spielen sie bisher in der praktischen Naturschutzarbeit eine untergeordnete Rolle. Verglichen mit anderen Tiergruppen, wie den Tagfaltern, Laufkäfern oder Wildbienen, werden sie nur selten im Rahmen raumrelevanter Planungen berücksichtigt. Dabei decken sie wie keine andere der häufiger untersuchten Gruppen ein breites Spektrum unterschiedlicher Lebensweisen ab. Während die Imagines der meisten Arten eifrige Blütenbesucher sind und eine wichtige Funktion als Bestäuber ausüben, zeichnen sich die Larven durch eine hohe Diversität von Lebensstrategien aus. Die phytophagen Arten minieren in Stängeln, Wurzeln oder Blättern, befallen unterirdische Speicherorgane von Pflanzen oder zapfen das Kambium von Nadelbäumen an. Manche Arten leben in den Fruchtkörpern von Pilzen. Saprophage Arten nutzen abgestorbene feuchte Pflanzen, an organischem Material reiche Gewässer (Pfützen, Teiche, wassergefüllte Baumhöhlen, etc.), leben in Schleimflüssen von Bäumen, in sich zersetzendem Holz, in Säugerkot oder ernähren sich vom Abfall in Wespen- und Hummelnestern. Die zoophagen Vertreter fressen Blattläuse, Raupen, Wespen- oder Ameisenbrut. Schwebfliegen findet man in praktisch allen terrestrischen Lebensräumen, im Wald ebenso wie auf Äckern und im Grünland, auf Sandrasen wie im Hochmoor. In Mitteleuropa sind die meisten Arten eher in frischen bis feuchten Lebensräumen zu finden, Wälder und andere gehölzreiche Lebensräume sind artenreicher als ganz offene Biotope. Einen für interessierte Laien geschriebenen Überblick über die Lebensweise der Schwebfliegen hat SCHMID (1996) veröffentlicht.
We radio-tracked two male and one female Virginia northern flying squirrels (Glaucomys sabrinus fuscus) in the Allegheny Mountains of West Virginia at Snowshoe Mountain Resort, in winter 2003 and Canaan Valley National Wildlife Refuge in winter 2004, respectively, to document winter home range and habitat use in or near ski areas. Male home range size in the winter was larger than that reported for males during summer and fall, whereas the female home range we observed was smaller than those reported for summer and fall. However, winter habitat use was similar to summer and fall habitat use reported in other studies. Virginia northern flying squirrels foraged and denned in both red spruce (Picea rubens)-dominated forests and northern hardwood forests; however, selection of red spruce-dominated forests and open areas was greater than expected based on availability. Use of northern hardwood forest occurred less than expected based on availability. Male squirrels denned near, and routinely crossed, downhill ski slopes and unimproved roads during foraging bouts, whereas the female approached, but did not cross forest edges onto roads or trails.
Stetig wächst das Bewusstsein, dass Spinnen schützenswerte Lebewesen mit einer höchst interessanten Lebensweise sind und dass sie hohe Bedeutung im Naturhaushalt besitzen. Sie werden nicht mehr so häufig wie früher als lästiges, ekeliges und totzuschlagendes "Ungeziefer" empfunden. Nicht zuletzt die faszinierenden Darstellungen von KULLMANN & STERN (1981) haben das Interesse an dieser Tiergruppe geweckt. Darüber hinaus steht heute mit BELLMANN (1997) ein Werk mit hervorragenden Abbildungen und weiteren wichtigen Grundinformationen zur Verfügung, in dem sich auch Nichtfachleute rasch und gründlich über Spinnen informieren können. In Baden-Württemberg kommen nach dem aktuellen Kenntnisstand 738 Spinnenarten vor. Bedingt durch seine Lage im Südwesten Deutschlands ist hier der Anteil der Arten mit Hauptverbreitung im Süden Europas im Ländervergleich besonders groß. Arten mit Hauptverbreitung im Osten Europas finden sich ebenfalls. Im Schwarzwald und auf der Schwäbischen Alb sind Arten des Gebirges zu Hause. Viele Menschen halten Spinnen irrtümlich für Insekten. Spinnen bilden jedoch zusammen mit Skorpionen, Weberknechten, Milben und anderen Tierordnungen, wie zum Beispiel den Pseudoskorpionen, eine eigene Tierklasse.
Several classes of chemicals that are known or suspected contaminants were found in bed sediment in Rock Creek, including polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), phthalate esters, organochlorine pesticides, dioxins and furans, trace metals and metalloids (mercury, arsenic, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, copper, lead, nickel, silver, and zinc), and polychlorinated biphenyls (total PCBs and selected aroclors). Concentrations of many of these chemicals consistently exceeded thresholdor chronic-effects guidelines for the protection of aquatic life and often exceeded probable effects levels (PELs). Exceedance of PELs was dependent on the amount of total organic carbon in the sediments. Concurrent with the collection of sediment-quality data, white sucker (Catostomus commersoni) were evaluated for gross-external and internal-organ anomalies, whole-body burdens of chemical contaminants, and gut contents to determine prey. The histopathology of internal tissues of white sucker was compared to contaminant levels in fish tissue and bed sediment. Gut contents were examined to determine preferential prey and thus potential pathways for the bioaccumulation of chemicals from bed sediments. Male and female fish were tested separately. Lesions and other necroses were observed in all fish collected during both years of sample collection, indicating that fish in Rock Creek have experienced some form of environmental stress. No direct cause and effect was determined for chemical exposure and compromised fish health, but a substantial weight of evidence indicates that white sucker, which are bottom-eeding fish and low-order consumers in Rock Creek, are experiencing some reduction in vitality, possibly due to immunosuppression. Abnormalities observed in gonads of both sexes of white sucker and observations of abnormal behavior during spawning indicated some interruption in reproductive success.
Seabirds in the UK were generally more productive in 2005 than in 2004, when productivity for many species reached an all-time low. A presumed scarcity of sandeels in 2004, especially in the North Sea, led to widespread starvation of chicks in the Northern Isles and in many places along the east coast of Britain (there is also recent evidence that prey fish were of unusually low energy content in 2004 around SE Scotland). The likely knock-on effect for 2005 was that there were few larger sandeels present (those that hatched in 2004) and it is thought that feeding on these fish allow adults to attain breeding condition in spring. This food scarcity and a cold spring led to what was among the latest breeding seasons on record. However, a late appearance of young sandeels allowed some chicks to fledge, and alternative prey species (such as sprat and small haddock) were taken also. However, it is thought that some chicks starved in this late season, as sandeels become unavailable in late summer, when they settle on the seabed. Unusually, 2005 was a very poor breeding season for many species in NW Scotland, which was spared the food shortages of 2004 and previous years; preferred prey during chick rearing were scarce in this region in 2005.
Using molecular tools to differentiate closely related blackfly species of the genus Simulium
(2008)
Biodiversity data are the foundation for conservation and managemet and taxonomy provides the reference system, skills and tools used to identify organisms. Species level data such as species richness, composition and diversity are common metrics. However, species level identification of organisms tends to be neglected within ecological work, especially within monitoring programmes, but also in conservation biology (Giangrande, 2003). This is because collection of species level data is time consuming, with identification of species-specific characteristics traditionally involving lengthy examination of samples using microscopy. In addition it is costly and species level data is almost impossible to collect if the taxa involved are species rich and difficult to identify (Báldi 1999). Other reasons why species level identification is neglected include the fact that sample collection can damage organisms, so diagnostic morphological features are lost, or that individuals may be in a life history stage or of a sex that does not have diagnostic morphological characteristics. Furthermore, the numbers of available expert taxonomists needed for species identification are in decline and have been for several decades. Species identification using molecular taxonomy where DNA is used as a marker is championed as a tool for resolving a range of morphological problems, such as the association of all life history stages, correlating male and female specimens to the same species and identifying partial specimens. Traditional taxonomy is built around morphological variations between species, with systematic inferences based upon shared physical characters. In molecular taxonomy on the other hand, proteins and genes are used to determine evolutionary relationships. ’DNA barcoding’ aims to provide an efficient method for species-level identification and it is thought that it will provide a powerful tool for taxonomic and biodiversity research (Hajibabaei et al. 2007). Cited strengths of a molecular based approach to species identification include the potential universality and objective nature of DNA data as taxonomic information, the usefulness of molecular data in animal groups characterized by morphological cryptic characters and the use of DNA sequence information to determine otherwise ‘unidentifiable’ biological material (such as incomplete specimens or immature specimens). Its aim is to increase the speed, precision and efficiency of field studies involving diverse and difficult to identify taxa and it has the potential to be automated to provide a rapid and consistently accurate supplementary identification system to traditional taxonomy. This project was a proof-of-concept study that investigated the feasibility of using DNA barcodes to differentiate closely related blackfly species of the genus Simulium. The longer term objective would be to apply such molecular approaches to organisms used in water quality monitoring and to biodiversity studies to provide a quick, robust but practical and cost effective tool for species identification. Great Britain is currently home to 33 morphospecies of blackfly many of which are morphologically close to other species and have been the cause of much systematic revision. In addition to evaluating the use of DNA barcodes in species identification, a non-destructive DNA extraction method was developed to preserve voucher pecimens that will allow a complete morphological classification to be carried after DNA extraction. Using molecular tools to differentiate closely related blackfly species of the genus Simulium v Finding an effective DNA barcode for an individual species involves accurate taxonomic identification and the retention of voucher specimens for future morphological studies. A rapid non-destructive method for DNA extraction from small insects was developed where no clean-up step was required prior to amplification and it was possible to extract DNA of sufficient quality in minutes retaining diagnostic morphological characteristics. For any molecular tool used for species discrimination, an important consideration is defining the specific genetic loci (e.g. the position of genes on a chromosome) to be monitored. All blackfly species in this study were successfully amplified with the standard barcoding coxI gene primer pair LCO1490 5'-GGT CAA CAA ATC ATA AAG ATA TTG G-3' and HCO2198 5'-TAA ACT TCA GGG TGA CCA AAA AAT CA-3' (Folmer et al. 1994) and we did not need to optimise or redesign the primer sequence.
Nestling growth and development studies have been a topic of interest for a greater part of the last century (Sutton 1935, Walkinshaw 1948) and continue to be of interest today. This is not surprising since studies on nestling growth can provide a wealth of biological information that has larger implications for avian management and conservation. Despite this history of studying nestling development, basic information is still limited or absent for many species. Many questions remain unanswered, and contradictory conclusions are often found in the literature (Starck and Ricklefs 1998a). Therefore, much information on aging and development can still be gained from studying the development patterns of similar species and from comparative studies, across avian orders (Minea et al. 1982, Saunders and Hansen 1989, Carsson and Hörnfeldt 1993). Additionally, nestling growth studies can yield insight into the effects of different nesting strategies on productivity (O’Connor 1978), as well as the impacts of parental effort and environmental variables on fitness (Ross 1980, Ricklefs and Peters 1981, Magrath 1991). Since low reproductive success may play a significant role in the declines of many North American passerines (Sherry and Holmes 1992, Ballard et al. 2003), a better understanding of the factors that influence reproductive success is a vital component of avian conservation (Martin 1992). Data on nestling aging can be used to improve nest survival estimates (Dinsmore 2002, Nur et al. 2004), providing information that can be used to more precisely age nests (Pinkowski 1975, Podlesack and Blem 2002), (Jones and Geupel 2007). Indeed, the relatively short time period young spend developing in the nest is a critical part of a bird’s life cycle and a nestling’s developmental path can affect its survival to independence, its survival as an adult, and its future reproductive success.
Many questions regarding gastropod phylogeny have not yet been answered like the molecular confirmation of the Heterobranchia concept based on morphological studies from Haszprunar (1985a; 1988). This taxon contains the “Lower Heterobranchia” with several “primitive” or “basal” members) and the Euthyneura (with the Opisthobranchia and Pulmonata). Phylogenetic relationships of subgroups within the Heterobranchia have not been satisfactorily resolved and monophyly of some taxa within the Heterobranchia (e.g. Opisthobranchia) is questionable. Moreover, most of the “Lower Heterobranchia” have not been included in former molecular studies. In order to resolve phylogenetic relationships within the Heterobranchia, I pursued a molecular systematic approach by sequencing and analysing a variety of genetic markers (including nuclear 28S rDNA + 18S rDNA and mitochondrial 16S rDNA + COI sequences). Maximum likelihood as well as Bayesian inference methods were used for phylogenetic reconstruction. The data were investigated a priori to tree reconstruction in order to find the most appropriate dataset for reconstructing heterobranch phylogeny. A variety of statistical tests (like Chi-Square-Test or Relative-Rate-Test) were applied and the substitution saturation was measured. The Relative-Rate-Test revealed the highest evolution rates within the “Lower Heterobranchia” (Omalogyra sp., Omalogyra fusca, Murchisonella sp., Ebala sp. and Architectonica perspectiva) and Opisthobranchia (Hyalocylis striata). Furthermore, many of the nucleotide positions show a high degree of substitution saturation. Additionally, bipartitions (splits) in the alignment were examined and visualized by split network analyses to estimate data quality. A high level of conflict indicated by many parallel edges of the same lengths could be observed in the neighbournet graphs. Moreover, several taxa with long terminal branches could be identified in all three datasets belonging to the Vetigastropoda, Caenogastropoda, “Lower Heterobranchia” or Opisthobranchia (Nudipleura). All phylogenetic analyses revealed a monophyletic Heterobranchia. Within the Heterobranchia several well supported clades could be resolved. However, the traditional classification based on morphological data could not be confirmed due to paraphyletic Euthyneura (because of the inclusion of the Pyramidellidae and Glacidorboidea) as well as paraphyletic Pulmonata and polyphyletic Opisthobranchia. Based on the phylogenetic inferred evolutionary trends regarding habitat colonisation or character complexes could be deduced. A case study was conducted in order to estimate divergence ages using a “relaxed” molecular clock approach with fossils as minimum age constraints. However, due to large 95% confidence intervals a precise dating of the nodes was not possible. Hence, the results are considered as preliminary. To test the plausibility of the newly obtained hypotheses, the results were evaluated a posteriori using a hypothesis test and secondary structures of the complete 18S rRNA and 28S rRNA. Secondary structure motifs were found within domain 43 and E23 2 &5 of the 18S rRNA as well as within domain E11 and G5_1 of the 28S rRNA, which contain phylogenetic signals to support various groups within the Heterobranchia. In addition, taxon specific motifs were found separating the Vetigastropoda from the Caenogastropoda and Heterobranchia, indicating a possible application of the secondary structure of 18S rRNA and 28S rRNA to reveal phylogenetic relationships at higher taxonomic levels such as Gastropoda or even Mollusca. The utility of the newly invented software RNAsalsa for the reconstruction of secondary structures was tested. The obtained structures were used to adjust evolutionary models specific to rRNA stem (paired basepairs) and loop (unpaired basepairs) regions with the intention of improving phylogenetic results. This approach proved unsuccessful. This molecular phylogenetic investigation provides the most comprehensive molecular study of Heterobranchia relationships to date. Substantial insights into the evolution and phylogeny of this enigmatic taxon have been gained.
Results from a comparative anatomical study of the mesosomal skeleton of Chalcidoidea are presented. External and internal features are described and illustrated for 39 chalcidoid taxa, representing 16 families and 29 subfamilies. This is the most comprehensive morphological study ever conducted for the superfamily. The mesosoma was dissected, macerated and investigated using scanning electron microscopy. The mesothorax and metathorax contributed most of the phylogenetically relevant information. The metafurca is highly variable within Chalcidoidea but seems to be relatively constant at the subfamily level. One hundred and fifty-four morphological characters were scored and analysed cladistically. Outgroup species were chosen from six apocritan superfamilies: Stephanoidea, Ceraphronoidea, Cynipoidea, Platygastroidea, Proctotrupoidea and Mymarommatoidea. Some previously suggested chalcidoid relationships were retrieved: (1) Pteromalidae: Pteromalinae + Miscogasterinae + Panstenoninae; (2) Perilampidae + Eucharitidae; (3) Chalcididae + Leucospidae + Eurytomidae; (4) Eulophidae: Eulophinae + Tetrastichinae + Entedoninae; and (5) Eupelmidae + Encyrtidae, Mymarommatoidea renders Chalcidoidea paraphyletic in our analyses; however, the taxon sample is too restricted to provide a robust hypothesis. Three previously unreported putative autapomorphies of Chalcidoidea were revealed: (1) presence of an exposed, triangular or diamond-shaped prosternum; (2) presence of a percurrent mesopleural sulcus anteriorly terminating in the acropleuron; and (3) presence of paired metapectal plates lateral to the metafurca.
ZOOLOGISCHER JAHRESBERICHT 1881: Verf. untersuchten einen im Zoologischen Garten in Antwerpen gestorbenen erwachsenen africanischen Elefanten , dessen Haut und Skelet an das Brüsseler Museum kam. Auge. Die knorplige Stütze der Nickhaut verlängert sich stielförmig nach hinten an der inneren Seite des Bulbus. Die Nickhaut wird durch zwei selbständig am hinteren Ende des Stiels entspringende Muskeln bewegt, welche sich vorn oben uud unten in den orbicularis palpebrarum ansetzen. Ein rectus posterior (s. choauoideus, s. retractor) fehlt. Statt der fehlenden Thränendrüse ist die, dem Stielende der Nickhaut anliegende Hardersche Drüse sehr entwickelt. Das Auge ist nicht größer als das des Pferdes, die Orbita aber viel weiter, die Muskeln viel dicker. — Das Herz ist breit , die Umrisse fast viereckig (in der schematischen Lage des menschlichen Herzens) , die breit abgerundeten unteren Enden der Ventrikel durch eine tiefe Furche getrennt (an injicirten Präparaten, ähnlich wie bei den Sirenien. Die Vorkammern sind sehr geräumig; Herzohren fehlen , statt ihrer finden sich rechts und links gewundene , stark gefurchte, solide Anhänge. Die großen Gefäße entspringen wie beim indischen Elefanten in zwei Stämmen , einem truncus anonymus für rechte Subclavia und beide Carotiden und der linken Subclavia. Während ersterer und die Aorta bis zum Abgang der Gefäße sehr kurz ist , ist die pulmonalis merkwürdig lang bis zu ihrer Theilung, was beim indischen Tapir noch auffallender ist. Es sind zwei obere Hohlvenen und eine untere vorhanden. Im Ganzen ist das Herz des africanischen Elefanten kleiner als das des indischen. — Die Milz ist platt zungenförmig, an beiden Enden verschmälert. Ihre Länge ist enorm, 1,31m, ihre größte Breite 0,28m. — In Bezug auf die Zunge sei auch nur auf das von früheren Angaben Abweichende hingewiesen. Der Wharton sehe Gang mündet auf einem 15 mm langen frei flottireuden Faden, beinahe wie beim Pferde. Papulae foliatae (Mayer'sches Organ) sind rechts 19, links 18 vorhanden (33 Forbes , 15 Mojsisovics) . Den Pharyngealsack fanden Verf. so, wie ihn Watson vom indischen Elefanten beschreibt. — Am Kehlkopf sind die oberen Stimmbänder vorhanden ; 1. Morphologie, a) Anatomie. B. Monographien einz. Abth. 9 die gegentheiligen Angaben früherer Beobachter sind wahrscheinlich darauf zurückzuführen, daß sie junge Individuen untersucht haben. — Der Magen scheint im Verhältnis größer zu sein als beim indischen Elefanten. — Die Niereu boten auf der einen Seite eine pathologische Vergrößerung , auf der anderen vielleicht eine beginnende Atrophie dar. Verf. äußern die Ansicht, daß die Lappenbildung wohl mit dem Alter verschwinde. — Die Hoden des untersuchten Thieres waren viermal größer als die von Moj sisovics gemessenen. Das veru montanum sprang stark vor, nach vorn leistenartig verlängert. Die Öffnung des Uterus war V2cni weit, der Uterus 2cm tief. Jederseits fanden sich drei Prostatagänge. Die Urethralöffnung an der Spitze des Penis war nicht Y-förmig, sondern einfach senkrecht elliptisch.
Lepidoptera phylogeny and systematics : the state of inventorying moth and butterfly diversity
(2007)
The currently recognized robust support for the monophyly of the Lepidoptera (and the superorder Amphiesmenoptera comprising Lepidoptera + Trichoptera) is outlined, and the phylogeny of the principal lineages within the order is reviewed succinctly. The state of the taxonomic inventory of Lepidoptera is discussed separately for ‘micro-moths’, ‘macro-moths’ and butterflies, three assemblages on which work has followed historically somewhat different paths. While currently there are about 160,000 described species of Lepidoptera, the total number of extant species is estimated to be around half a million. On average, just over one thousand new species of Lepidoptera have been described annually in recent years. Allowing for the new synonyms simultaneously established, the net increase in species numbers still exceeds 800/year. Most of the additions are foreseeable in the micro-moth grade, but even for butterflies ca 100 species are added annually. Examples of particularly interesting new high-rank taxa that have been described (or whose significance has become realized) since the middle of the 20th century include the non-glossatan lineages represented by Agathiphaga and Heterobathmia and the heteroneuran families Andesianidae, Palaephatidae, Hedylidae and Micronoctuidae. Some thoughts on how present and future systematic lepidopterology might be prioritised are presented.
The morphology of green and blue feathers of the Rose-faced Lovebird (Agapomis roseicollis) is described from light-, fluorescence-, and electron microscopical findings and discussed in relation to earlier works. The description is intended to provide a basis for future comparative studies. Special attention is given to the colour-producing elements (pigments and the short-wave reflecting spongy structure ('Blaustruktur', 'cloudy medium') of specialized medullary barb cells (spongy cells, box cells)), and the findings are correlated with macro- and microspectrophotometric measurements. Green barbs differ from those of blue ba rbs in having their cortex yellow pigmented, but are further distinguished by their spongy structure which is denser (wider keratin rods and correspondingly narrower air-filled channels) than that of blue barbs. This difference corresponds to the wave-length of maximum reflectance being shifted c. 30 nm towards longer wave-lengths compared to that of blue barbs. Thus green barbs are not the same as blue barbs only with a yellow pigmented instead of an unpigmented cortex, as usually stated. Dark green hack feathers reflect approximately half as much light throughout the visible spectrum as do green belly feathers. This difference is due to variations in yellow and black pigmentation of the barbules. These variations are described quantitatively and the importance of barbules for the resulting feather colour is stressed. Variation in size and shape of barbs and barbules are discussed, principally in relation to their optical efIects and the presumed functions of the colours. The colour produced by the spongy structure cannot be explained by Tyndall (Rayleigh) scattering as is usually done. This follows from the shapes of the barb reflectance spectra which are not in agreement with the Rayleigh equation (scattering inversely proportional to lambda4). A new model for colour production is forwarded. It is based on a model of the spongy structure in which this is considered to consist of short hollow keratin cylinders (diameter 0.3-0.35 ft) with air-filled cores. Backscattering from these cylinders is considered responsible for colour production and good agreement is obtained between values of lambda max calculated from the model and those measured spectrophotometrically. The backscattering from the Individual cylinders can be regarded as an Interference phenomenon. The colour of the spongy structure thus is an interference colour. That it appears diffuse and not iridescent, as is generally the case for interference colours in feathers, is due to the presence of many hollow cylinders oriented in all directions in the spongy structure.
On the occurence of bats (Chiroptera) in South Tyrol (2): Vespertilionidae Since 1988 the author has been collecting and recording bat observations in South Tyrol. From 1990 to 1991 and from 1995 to 1997, in two different studies, he carried on a survey on the presence, the frequency and the horizontal and vertical dispersal of the various species of bats. The first task was on one hand to search the attics and steeples of about 700 churches and chapels; and, on the other hand, to answer the numerous calls telling of the presence of bats in private houses, to capture bats for a check-up and to inform people about European bats beeing harmless for humans, animals and houses. There is good evidence of 23 species of bats in South Tyrol since 1988 and of the reproduction of 18 of them, as well as there are single discoveries of three further species, and finally summer colonies of two species. As there is no certified evidence of the presence of Pipistrellus pygmaeus and of Plecotus alpinus they have not been included in this record. The data-base already provides a good idea of the presence and frequency of bat-species. Species which are frequent in Central Europe have been found almost everywhere in South Tyrol (e.g. Pipistrellus pipistrellus, Plecotus sp.), some of them in several colonies with a considerable number of individuals. The Etsch/ Adige Valley as far up as Meran/Merano - due to its mild climate - makes home for a few Mediterrean species. The few possibilities we got from scientific pubblications to make a comparison with former times let suppose that the bat occurences have diminued only in a few species. The reasons are to search mainly in the diminued offer of food.
The factors responsible for determining the host-plants and feeding sites of aphids, and the various probing activities (the role of the labium, stylet insertion, surface saliva deposition, the behaviour of the aphid, virus transmission) are examined. There is a brief review of stylet structure and movement and the possible sensory nature of these organs, followed by a detailed review of the characteristics of aphid stylet paths in plant tissues. The penetration of epidermis and vascular tissues is treated separately while that within the intermediate tissues is covered in relation to leaves and stems, roots, trees, galls and excised tissue as well as in separate sections on Aphis fabae Scopoli and Myzus persicae (Sulzer). Stylet destinations and behaviour in the sieve tubes are discussed together with general features such as rate and depth of penetration, guidance to the feeding site, effects of tissue hardness and stylet withdrawal. The ingestion rate of plant sap is reviewed and its constitution and importance examined together with the significance of artificial diets. The salivary secretions including sheaths and tracks, their functions and their role in the transference of material between aphid and host are dealt with. The nature of the physical and internal damage resulting from aphid feeding is briefly covered, and also some plant-insect interrelations. The aphid species whose stylets have been examined in plant tissue are listed.
Zweck folgender Arbeit ist es, den Aufbau eines einfachen Arthropodengehimes mit möglichster Vollständigkeit zn erforschen, um hiedurch, die Grundlagen fiir eine morphologische Vergleichung dieses Organs, wenigstens innerhalb der Krebsreihe zu erlangen. In einigen Punkten ; hoffe ich, ist meine Arbeit von Erfolg gewesen; leider in anderen bisher nicht. Dennoch glaube ich, daß auch dieser erste Ansatz zur Lösung ein bescheidenes Interesse finden kann; andrerseits erringern sich die Cladoceren gerade jetzt durch ihre Eignung zu vielen experirdentellen Forschungen starke Beachtung und auch in dieser Hinsicht dürfte eine Erweiterung unserer Kenntnisse, speziell des Nervensystems, nicht unerwünscht sein . Den Stoff gliedern wir uns in folgende Kapitel: a) Literatur und Methoden b) Allgemeine Übersicht der Bauverhältnisse c) Das Gehirn und seine Sinnesorgane cl) Das periphere Nervensysteni des Körpers B) Physiologische Bemerkungen f) Allgemeines und Zusammenfassung.
The objects of this work were to reinvestigate and extend the results announced in a brief note published in 1925 (Murray and Huxley, 1925a). In this paper it was concluded that isolated fragments of the limb buds of the fourday chick are able to self-differentiate when Iiving as grafts on the chorio-allantoic membrane of older chicks; that the bud of the four-day chick is a mosaic; it was hinted that each of the morphological regions of the limb (femur, tibia-fibula, etc.) is represented by a Single piece of the mosaic; that no regeneration or regulation occurs in fragments of the bud, except that it was concluded that if a grafted fragment contains only part of a piece of the mosaic, that part could so regulate its future development as to form the complete morphological region of which it was originally a part, so that a fragment of the bud which contains part only of the region Which would normally form femur will, when growing as a graft, form a complete femur. It will be seen that the results of the present work uphold and confirm the tentative conclusions previously advanced, except in regard to the last point (regulation). A considerable amonnt of further information has also been obtained bearing on tile factors concerned in the development of the form of bones and joints.
The higher classification of the Nocluoidea (Oenosandridae, Doidae, Notodontidae, Strepsimanidae, Nolidae, lymanlriidae, Arctiidae, Erebidae, Micronoctuidae, and Noctuidae) is reviewed from the perspective of the classification proposed by KITCHING and RAWLINS (1998). Several taxa are reinstated, described as new, synonymised, or redescribed. Some characters that have been inadequately described, poorly understood, or misinterpreted, are redescribed and discussed. One family, two subfamilies, four tribes, and three subtribes are proposed as new. Available family-group names of Noctuoidea are listed In an appendix.
The taxonomy, diversity, and distribution of the aquatic insect order Trichoptera, caddisflies, are reviewed. The order is among the most important and diverse of all aquatic taxa. Larvae are vital participants in aquatic food webs and their presence and relative abundance are used in the biological assessment and monitoring of water quality. The species described by Linnaeus are listed. The morphology of all life history stages (adults, larvae, and pupae) is diagnosed and major features of the anatomy are illustrated. Major components of life history and biology are summarized. A discussion of phylogenetic studies within the order is presented, including higher classification of the suborders and superfamilies, based on recent literature. Synopses of each of 45 families are presented, including the taxonomic history of the family, a list of all known genera in each family, their general distribution and relative species diversity, and a short overview of family-level biological features. The order contains 600 genera, and approximately 13,000 species.
Ulrike Anders hat zwischen Januar und September 2005 Zähne und Gebiß rezenter Schleichkatzen (Viverridae) untersucht und Parameter identifiziert, anhand derer sich Nahrungspräferenzen zuordnen lassen. Viverriden gelten als basale Carnivoren mit omnivorem Nahrungsspektrum. Da die für echte Katzen so typische Brechschere und die Reduktion des Gebisses nur wenig ausgeprägt ist, gilt ihr Gebiss als unspezialisiert. Dennoch besitzen Viverriden Nahrungspräferenzen, die sich in der Umgestaltung ihres Gebisses, auch in einzelnen Zahnpositionen niederschlägt. Diese Veränderungen wurden metrisch charakterisiert.
The present paper is a continuation of "The Birds of the Galapagos Islands, with Observations all the Birds of Clipperton and Cocos Islands (Columbiformes to Pelecaniformes)". The collection of land bird skins brought back by the Expedition numbers 5,916, exclusive of the Galapagos Dove. The writer lacks the time to study this large number of specimens and therefore deems it advisable to publish his field notes without further delay. In addition to the skins, considerable collections of eggs, nests, and birds and stomachs in alcohol were macle. These also await investigation. The land birds of Cocos Island, Costa Rica, and of the Galapagos Islands are treated in the present connection, with the exception of the Galapagos Dove already considered in the earlier paper. The sequence and nomenclature of species in both papers is that of Sharpe's "Hand-list of the Genera and Species of Birds." As the species of the genera Geospiza and Camarhynchus demand a thorough revision with all available material at hand, the writer uses provisionally, with a few changes, the specific names as defined by Messrs. Rothschild and Hartert and Messrs. Snodgrass and Heller. Wherever the writer fails to recognize a species admitted by these authors, the rejected name is placed in a. selected synonymy. The localities listed for each species also include those mentioned by Messrs. Salvin, Ridgway, Rothschild and Hartert, and Snodgrass and Heller. For a full, description of the botanical regions or zones (dry or arid, moist or humid, and grassy, in order from seashore to mountain top) mentioned in this paper, the reader should refer to Mr. Alban Stewart's paper "A Botanical Survey of the Galapagos Islands."
This paper is a general review of the problem of clutch-size in birds. It grew out of a search through the literature to see to what extent clutch-size trends found in the Robin, Erithaau8 rebecula, might apply generally. Part I. describes those types of clutch-size variation found within any species, Part II. provides a general discussion of the factors involved. In Part IlI, which follows separately later, some of the differences between different species of birds will be considered. Examples are taken mainly from European birds, hence this review is in some ways supplementary to that on African birds by Moreau (1944), to which the present study owes a considerable debt.
Our understanding of the impact of recombination, mutation, genetic drift and selection on the evolution of a single gene is still limited. Here we investigate the impact of all of these evolutionary forces at the complementary sex determiner (csd) gene which evolves under a balancing mode of selection. Females are heterozygous at the csd gene and males are hemizygous; diploid males are lethal and occur when csd is homozygous. Rare alleles thus have a selective advantage, are seldom lost by the effect of genetic drift and are maintained over extended periods of time when compared to neutral polymorphisms. Here, we report on the analysis of 17, 19 and 15 csd alleles of Apis cerana, Apis dorsata and Apis mellifera honey bees respectively. We observed great heterogeneity of synonymous (pi S) and nonsynonymous (pi N) polymorphisms across the gene, with a consistent peak in exon 6 and 7. We propose that exons 6 and 7 encode the potential specifying domain (csd-PSD) which has accumulated elevated nucleotide polymorphisms over time by balancing selection. We observed no direct evidence that balancing selection favors the accumulation of nonsynonymous changes at csd-PSD (pi N/pi S ratios are all < 1, ranging from 0.6 to 0.95). We observed an excess of shared nonsynonymous changes, which suggests that strong evolutionary constraints are operating at csd-PSD resulting in the independent accumulation of the same nonsynonymous changes in different alleles across species (convergent evolution). Analysis of a csd-PSD genealogy revealed relatively short average coalescence times (~6 million years), low average synonymous nucleotide diversity (pi S < 0.09) and a lack of trans-specific alleles which substantially contrasts with previously analyzed loci under strong balancing selection. We excluded the possibility of a burst of diversification after population bottlenecking and intragenic recombination as explanatory factors, leaving high turn-over rates as the explanation for this observation. By comparing observed allele richness and average coalescence times with a simplified model of csd-coalescence, we found that small long term population sizes (i.e. Ne <104), but not high mutation rates, can explain short maintenance times, implicating a strong impact of genetic drift on the molecular evolution of highly social honey bees.
On Urnatella gracilis
(1893)
Araneae (I.)
(1908)
The present paper contains an account of that portion of the Araneae collected by Dr. Lt SCHULTZE in South Africa, which falls into the families given in the following list, the numbers in the list being the total number of examples collected of each family and the number of species identified or described in this paper: Fam. Aviculariidae 66 examples 11 species (10 new) Fam. Dictynidae 14 examples 3 species (1 new) Fam. Eresidae 1057 examples 10 species ( 6 new) Fam. Sicariidae 46 examples 7 species ( 4 new) Fam. Dysdeddae 144 examples 6 species ( 4 new) Fam. Caponiidae 26 examples 1 species Fam. Prodidomidae 1 example 1 species Fam. Drassidae 557 examples 27 species (21 new) Totals: 1911 examples 66 species (46 new) Dr. SCHULTZE is to be congratulated on the large number of specimens obtained by him. The most extensive collections were made in Little Namaqualand, but a considerable number of specimens were also obtained in Great Namaqualand (including Possession Island) and in the Kalahari (in the Bechuanaland Protectorate), while a small number came from Southern Hereroland (S. Damaraland) and from the Cape Peninsula. With the exception of the last, all these localities represent practically new fields for the collector of Aranee, for, so far as I am aware, no extensive collections have ever been made in any of them before, and only a. few odd species have been recorded from time to time. Accordingly more than two-thirds of the total number of species described or identified in this paper are new to science, although the genera to which they belong are in all cases identical with those of the other and better known dry portions of the interior of Cape Colony. If the gregarious Eresidae (StegodyphuS) be excluded from the above list, it will be seen that the Drassidae are by far the most numerous both in individuals and species, being followed in number by the non-gregarious Eresidae and the Dysderidae. But it must be borne in mind that the underground Aviculariidae, particularly the Trap-door forms, were probably not collected as thoroughly as the other spiders, owing to the extreme difficulty generally experienced in discovering their retreats. Nevertheless Dr. SCHULTZE obtained at least 7 species, which may with confidence be placed among the trap-door building forms, belonging to the genera ldiops, Stasimopus, Pelmatorycter and Ancylotrypa. The two largest spiders obtained were a large Harpactira from Great and Little Namaqualand, and a new Ceratogyrus from the Kalahari, the latter having a peculiar horn in the middle of the cephalothorax above.
Evidence from archaeological fish bone assemblages from the southern North Sea region of Europe is used to illuminate fishing, fish consumption and fish trade from the 1st to the 16th century AD. The fish species represented in the material indicate a very strong influence from the local fish fauna at almost all sites. The species and size of the fish indicate that several fishing methods have been employed throughout the period studied, including nets, hooks and weirs. A chronological development in fishing, for example, a tendency towards more sea-going fishing, is reflected in the fish bone assemblages in some countlres. Evidence from fishing in the Baltic region from the 5th century BC to the 16th century AD is included in the discussion. Indications of fish trade include bones of exotic species (for instance, matinc species at inland sites) and an unbalanced representation of skeletal clements (trade with decapitated stockfish or gillless hering). Of particular interest are assemblages which indicate a fish industry, for instance, large-scale processing (removal of gills) of herring in 13th century Denmark.
Bienen sind wegen ihres Honigs beliebt und wegen ihrer Bestäubungsleistung wirtschaftlich unverzichtbar. Nicht nur in den Vereinigten Staaten nimmt das Bienensterben allerdings bisweilen dramatische Ausmaße an. Auch unsere heimischen Bienenvölker sind bedroht. Das hat eine Vielzahl von Forschungsprojekten zur Biologie der Biene und zu ihrem Schutz initiiert. Das Institut für Bienenkunde der Polytechnischen Gesellschaft und der Goethe-Universität in Oberursel untersucht in einem integrierten Forschungsansatz die kognitiven Leistungen von Bienen und wie sie durch Krankheit, Stress und Insektizidvergiftungen beeinträchtig werden.
Observations on fish scales
(1913)
Zwei neue Anophthalmen
(1895)