590 Tiere (Zoologie)
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ZOOLOGISCHER JAHRESBERICHT 1881: Verf. untersuchten einen im Zoologischen Garten in Antwerpen gestorbenen erwachsenen africanischen Elefanten , dessen Haut und Skelet an das Brüsseler Museum kam. Auge. Die knorplige Stütze der Nickhaut verlängert sich stielförmig nach hinten an der inneren Seite des Bulbus. Die Nickhaut wird durch zwei selbständig am hinteren Ende des Stiels entspringende Muskeln bewegt, welche sich vorn oben uud unten in den orbicularis palpebrarum ansetzen. Ein rectus posterior (s. choauoideus, s. retractor) fehlt. Statt der fehlenden Thränendrüse ist die, dem Stielende der Nickhaut anliegende Hardersche Drüse sehr entwickelt. Das Auge ist nicht größer als das des Pferdes, die Orbita aber viel weiter, die Muskeln viel dicker. — Das Herz ist breit , die Umrisse fast viereckig (in der schematischen Lage des menschlichen Herzens) , die breit abgerundeten unteren Enden der Ventrikel durch eine tiefe Furche getrennt (an injicirten Präparaten, ähnlich wie bei den Sirenien. Die Vorkammern sind sehr geräumig; Herzohren fehlen , statt ihrer finden sich rechts und links gewundene , stark gefurchte, solide Anhänge. Die großen Gefäße entspringen wie beim indischen Elefanten in zwei Stämmen , einem truncus anonymus für rechte Subclavia und beide Carotiden und der linken Subclavia. Während ersterer und die Aorta bis zum Abgang der Gefäße sehr kurz ist , ist die pulmonalis merkwürdig lang bis zu ihrer Theilung, was beim indischen Tapir noch auffallender ist. Es sind zwei obere Hohlvenen und eine untere vorhanden. Im Ganzen ist das Herz des africanischen Elefanten kleiner als das des indischen. — Die Milz ist platt zungenförmig, an beiden Enden verschmälert. Ihre Länge ist enorm, 1,31m, ihre größte Breite 0,28m. — In Bezug auf die Zunge sei auch nur auf das von früheren Angaben Abweichende hingewiesen. Der Wharton sehe Gang mündet auf einem 15 mm langen frei flottireuden Faden, beinahe wie beim Pferde. Papulae foliatae (Mayer'sches Organ) sind rechts 19, links 18 vorhanden (33 Forbes , 15 Mojsisovics) . Den Pharyngealsack fanden Verf. so, wie ihn Watson vom indischen Elefanten beschreibt. — Am Kehlkopf sind die oberen Stimmbänder vorhanden ; 1. Morphologie, a) Anatomie. B. Monographien einz. Abth. 9 die gegentheiligen Angaben früherer Beobachter sind wahrscheinlich darauf zurückzuführen, daß sie junge Individuen untersucht haben. — Der Magen scheint im Verhältnis größer zu sein als beim indischen Elefanten. — Die Niereu boten auf der einen Seite eine pathologische Vergrößerung , auf der anderen vielleicht eine beginnende Atrophie dar. Verf. äußern die Ansicht, daß die Lappenbildung wohl mit dem Alter verschwinde. — Die Hoden des untersuchten Thieres waren viermal größer als die von Moj sisovics gemessenen. Das veru montanum sprang stark vor, nach vorn leistenartig verlängert. Die Öffnung des Uterus war V2cni weit, der Uterus 2cm tief. Jederseits fanden sich drei Prostatagänge. Die Urethralöffnung an der Spitze des Penis war nicht Y-förmig, sondern einfach senkrecht elliptisch.
Lepidoptera phylogeny and systematics : the state of inventorying moth and butterfly diversity
(2007)
The currently recognized robust support for the monophyly of the Lepidoptera (and the superorder Amphiesmenoptera comprising Lepidoptera + Trichoptera) is outlined, and the phylogeny of the principal lineages within the order is reviewed succinctly. The state of the taxonomic inventory of Lepidoptera is discussed separately for ‘micro-moths’, ‘macro-moths’ and butterflies, three assemblages on which work has followed historically somewhat different paths. While currently there are about 160,000 described species of Lepidoptera, the total number of extant species is estimated to be around half a million. On average, just over one thousand new species of Lepidoptera have been described annually in recent years. Allowing for the new synonyms simultaneously established, the net increase in species numbers still exceeds 800/year. Most of the additions are foreseeable in the micro-moth grade, but even for butterflies ca 100 species are added annually. Examples of particularly interesting new high-rank taxa that have been described (or whose significance has become realized) since the middle of the 20th century include the non-glossatan lineages represented by Agathiphaga and Heterobathmia and the heteroneuran families Andesianidae, Palaephatidae, Hedylidae and Micronoctuidae. Some thoughts on how present and future systematic lepidopterology might be prioritised are presented.
The morphology of green and blue feathers of the Rose-faced Lovebird (Agapomis roseicollis) is described from light-, fluorescence-, and electron microscopical findings and discussed in relation to earlier works. The description is intended to provide a basis for future comparative studies. Special attention is given to the colour-producing elements (pigments and the short-wave reflecting spongy structure ('Blaustruktur', 'cloudy medium') of specialized medullary barb cells (spongy cells, box cells)), and the findings are correlated with macro- and microspectrophotometric measurements. Green barbs differ from those of blue ba rbs in having their cortex yellow pigmented, but are further distinguished by their spongy structure which is denser (wider keratin rods and correspondingly narrower air-filled channels) than that of blue barbs. This difference corresponds to the wave-length of maximum reflectance being shifted c. 30 nm towards longer wave-lengths compared to that of blue barbs. Thus green barbs are not the same as blue barbs only with a yellow pigmented instead of an unpigmented cortex, as usually stated. Dark green hack feathers reflect approximately half as much light throughout the visible spectrum as do green belly feathers. This difference is due to variations in yellow and black pigmentation of the barbules. These variations are described quantitatively and the importance of barbules for the resulting feather colour is stressed. Variation in size and shape of barbs and barbules are discussed, principally in relation to their optical efIects and the presumed functions of the colours. The colour produced by the spongy structure cannot be explained by Tyndall (Rayleigh) scattering as is usually done. This follows from the shapes of the barb reflectance spectra which are not in agreement with the Rayleigh equation (scattering inversely proportional to lambda4). A new model for colour production is forwarded. It is based on a model of the spongy structure in which this is considered to consist of short hollow keratin cylinders (diameter 0.3-0.35 ft) with air-filled cores. Backscattering from these cylinders is considered responsible for colour production and good agreement is obtained between values of lambda max calculated from the model and those measured spectrophotometrically. The backscattering from the Individual cylinders can be regarded as an Interference phenomenon. The colour of the spongy structure thus is an interference colour. That it appears diffuse and not iridescent, as is generally the case for interference colours in feathers, is due to the presence of many hollow cylinders oriented in all directions in the spongy structure.
On the occurence of bats (Chiroptera) in South Tyrol (2): Vespertilionidae Since 1988 the author has been collecting and recording bat observations in South Tyrol. From 1990 to 1991 and from 1995 to 1997, in two different studies, he carried on a survey on the presence, the frequency and the horizontal and vertical dispersal of the various species of bats. The first task was on one hand to search the attics and steeples of about 700 churches and chapels; and, on the other hand, to answer the numerous calls telling of the presence of bats in private houses, to capture bats for a check-up and to inform people about European bats beeing harmless for humans, animals and houses. There is good evidence of 23 species of bats in South Tyrol since 1988 and of the reproduction of 18 of them, as well as there are single discoveries of three further species, and finally summer colonies of two species. As there is no certified evidence of the presence of Pipistrellus pygmaeus and of Plecotus alpinus they have not been included in this record. The data-base already provides a good idea of the presence and frequency of bat-species. Species which are frequent in Central Europe have been found almost everywhere in South Tyrol (e.g. Pipistrellus pipistrellus, Plecotus sp.), some of them in several colonies with a considerable number of individuals. The Etsch/ Adige Valley as far up as Meran/Merano - due to its mild climate - makes home for a few Mediterrean species. The few possibilities we got from scientific pubblications to make a comparison with former times let suppose that the bat occurences have diminued only in a few species. The reasons are to search mainly in the diminued offer of food.
The factors responsible for determining the host-plants and feeding sites of aphids, and the various probing activities (the role of the labium, stylet insertion, surface saliva deposition, the behaviour of the aphid, virus transmission) are examined. There is a brief review of stylet structure and movement and the possible sensory nature of these organs, followed by a detailed review of the characteristics of aphid stylet paths in plant tissues. The penetration of epidermis and vascular tissues is treated separately while that within the intermediate tissues is covered in relation to leaves and stems, roots, trees, galls and excised tissue as well as in separate sections on Aphis fabae Scopoli and Myzus persicae (Sulzer). Stylet destinations and behaviour in the sieve tubes are discussed together with general features such as rate and depth of penetration, guidance to the feeding site, effects of tissue hardness and stylet withdrawal. The ingestion rate of plant sap is reviewed and its constitution and importance examined together with the significance of artificial diets. The salivary secretions including sheaths and tracks, their functions and their role in the transference of material between aphid and host are dealt with. The nature of the physical and internal damage resulting from aphid feeding is briefly covered, and also some plant-insect interrelations. The aphid species whose stylets have been examined in plant tissue are listed.
Zweck folgender Arbeit ist es, den Aufbau eines einfachen Arthropodengehimes mit möglichster Vollständigkeit zn erforschen, um hiedurch, die Grundlagen fiir eine morphologische Vergleichung dieses Organs, wenigstens innerhalb der Krebsreihe zu erlangen. In einigen Punkten ; hoffe ich, ist meine Arbeit von Erfolg gewesen; leider in anderen bisher nicht. Dennoch glaube ich, daß auch dieser erste Ansatz zur Lösung ein bescheidenes Interesse finden kann; andrerseits erringern sich die Cladoceren gerade jetzt durch ihre Eignung zu vielen experirdentellen Forschungen starke Beachtung und auch in dieser Hinsicht dürfte eine Erweiterung unserer Kenntnisse, speziell des Nervensystems, nicht unerwünscht sein . Den Stoff gliedern wir uns in folgende Kapitel: a) Literatur und Methoden b) Allgemeine Übersicht der Bauverhältnisse c) Das Gehirn und seine Sinnesorgane cl) Das periphere Nervensysteni des Körpers B) Physiologische Bemerkungen f) Allgemeines und Zusammenfassung.
The objects of this work were to reinvestigate and extend the results announced in a brief note published in 1925 (Murray and Huxley, 1925a). In this paper it was concluded that isolated fragments of the limb buds of the fourday chick are able to self-differentiate when Iiving as grafts on the chorio-allantoic membrane of older chicks; that the bud of the four-day chick is a mosaic; it was hinted that each of the morphological regions of the limb (femur, tibia-fibula, etc.) is represented by a Single piece of the mosaic; that no regeneration or regulation occurs in fragments of the bud, except that it was concluded that if a grafted fragment contains only part of a piece of the mosaic, that part could so regulate its future development as to form the complete morphological region of which it was originally a part, so that a fragment of the bud which contains part only of the region Which would normally form femur will, when growing as a graft, form a complete femur. It will be seen that the results of the present work uphold and confirm the tentative conclusions previously advanced, except in regard to the last point (regulation). A considerable amonnt of further information has also been obtained bearing on tile factors concerned in the development of the form of bones and joints.
The higher classification of the Nocluoidea (Oenosandridae, Doidae, Notodontidae, Strepsimanidae, Nolidae, lymanlriidae, Arctiidae, Erebidae, Micronoctuidae, and Noctuidae) is reviewed from the perspective of the classification proposed by KITCHING and RAWLINS (1998). Several taxa are reinstated, described as new, synonymised, or redescribed. Some characters that have been inadequately described, poorly understood, or misinterpreted, are redescribed and discussed. One family, two subfamilies, four tribes, and three subtribes are proposed as new. Available family-group names of Noctuoidea are listed In an appendix.
The taxonomy, diversity, and distribution of the aquatic insect order Trichoptera, caddisflies, are reviewed. The order is among the most important and diverse of all aquatic taxa. Larvae are vital participants in aquatic food webs and their presence and relative abundance are used in the biological assessment and monitoring of water quality. The species described by Linnaeus are listed. The morphology of all life history stages (adults, larvae, and pupae) is diagnosed and major features of the anatomy are illustrated. Major components of life history and biology are summarized. A discussion of phylogenetic studies within the order is presented, including higher classification of the suborders and superfamilies, based on recent literature. Synopses of each of 45 families are presented, including the taxonomic history of the family, a list of all known genera in each family, their general distribution and relative species diversity, and a short overview of family-level biological features. The order contains 600 genera, and approximately 13,000 species.
Ulrike Anders hat zwischen Januar und September 2005 Zähne und Gebiß rezenter Schleichkatzen (Viverridae) untersucht und Parameter identifiziert, anhand derer sich Nahrungspräferenzen zuordnen lassen. Viverriden gelten als basale Carnivoren mit omnivorem Nahrungsspektrum. Da die für echte Katzen so typische Brechschere und die Reduktion des Gebisses nur wenig ausgeprägt ist, gilt ihr Gebiss als unspezialisiert. Dennoch besitzen Viverriden Nahrungspräferenzen, die sich in der Umgestaltung ihres Gebisses, auch in einzelnen Zahnpositionen niederschlägt. Diese Veränderungen wurden metrisch charakterisiert.
The present paper is a continuation of "The Birds of the Galapagos Islands, with Observations all the Birds of Clipperton and Cocos Islands (Columbiformes to Pelecaniformes)". The collection of land bird skins brought back by the Expedition numbers 5,916, exclusive of the Galapagos Dove. The writer lacks the time to study this large number of specimens and therefore deems it advisable to publish his field notes without further delay. In addition to the skins, considerable collections of eggs, nests, and birds and stomachs in alcohol were macle. These also await investigation. The land birds of Cocos Island, Costa Rica, and of the Galapagos Islands are treated in the present connection, with the exception of the Galapagos Dove already considered in the earlier paper. The sequence and nomenclature of species in both papers is that of Sharpe's "Hand-list of the Genera and Species of Birds." As the species of the genera Geospiza and Camarhynchus demand a thorough revision with all available material at hand, the writer uses provisionally, with a few changes, the specific names as defined by Messrs. Rothschild and Hartert and Messrs. Snodgrass and Heller. Wherever the writer fails to recognize a species admitted by these authors, the rejected name is placed in a. selected synonymy. The localities listed for each species also include those mentioned by Messrs. Salvin, Ridgway, Rothschild and Hartert, and Snodgrass and Heller. For a full, description of the botanical regions or zones (dry or arid, moist or humid, and grassy, in order from seashore to mountain top) mentioned in this paper, the reader should refer to Mr. Alban Stewart's paper "A Botanical Survey of the Galapagos Islands."
This paper is a general review of the problem of clutch-size in birds. It grew out of a search through the literature to see to what extent clutch-size trends found in the Robin, Erithaau8 rebecula, might apply generally. Part I. describes those types of clutch-size variation found within any species, Part II. provides a general discussion of the factors involved. In Part IlI, which follows separately later, some of the differences between different species of birds will be considered. Examples are taken mainly from European birds, hence this review is in some ways supplementary to that on African birds by Moreau (1944), to which the present study owes a considerable debt.
Our understanding of the impact of recombination, mutation, genetic drift and selection on the evolution of a single gene is still limited. Here we investigate the impact of all of these evolutionary forces at the complementary sex determiner (csd) gene which evolves under a balancing mode of selection. Females are heterozygous at the csd gene and males are hemizygous; diploid males are lethal and occur when csd is homozygous. Rare alleles thus have a selective advantage, are seldom lost by the effect of genetic drift and are maintained over extended periods of time when compared to neutral polymorphisms. Here, we report on the analysis of 17, 19 and 15 csd alleles of Apis cerana, Apis dorsata and Apis mellifera honey bees respectively. We observed great heterogeneity of synonymous (pi S) and nonsynonymous (pi N) polymorphisms across the gene, with a consistent peak in exon 6 and 7. We propose that exons 6 and 7 encode the potential specifying domain (csd-PSD) which has accumulated elevated nucleotide polymorphisms over time by balancing selection. We observed no direct evidence that balancing selection favors the accumulation of nonsynonymous changes at csd-PSD (pi N/pi S ratios are all < 1, ranging from 0.6 to 0.95). We observed an excess of shared nonsynonymous changes, which suggests that strong evolutionary constraints are operating at csd-PSD resulting in the independent accumulation of the same nonsynonymous changes in different alleles across species (convergent evolution). Analysis of a csd-PSD genealogy revealed relatively short average coalescence times (~6 million years), low average synonymous nucleotide diversity (pi S < 0.09) and a lack of trans-specific alleles which substantially contrasts with previously analyzed loci under strong balancing selection. We excluded the possibility of a burst of diversification after population bottlenecking and intragenic recombination as explanatory factors, leaving high turn-over rates as the explanation for this observation. By comparing observed allele richness and average coalescence times with a simplified model of csd-coalescence, we found that small long term population sizes (i.e. Ne <104), but not high mutation rates, can explain short maintenance times, implicating a strong impact of genetic drift on the molecular evolution of highly social honey bees.
On Urnatella gracilis
(1893)
Araneae (I.)
(1908)
The present paper contains an account of that portion of the Araneae collected by Dr. Lt SCHULTZE in South Africa, which falls into the families given in the following list, the numbers in the list being the total number of examples collected of each family and the number of species identified or described in this paper: Fam. Aviculariidae 66 examples 11 species (10 new) Fam. Dictynidae 14 examples 3 species (1 new) Fam. Eresidae 1057 examples 10 species ( 6 new) Fam. Sicariidae 46 examples 7 species ( 4 new) Fam. Dysdeddae 144 examples 6 species ( 4 new) Fam. Caponiidae 26 examples 1 species Fam. Prodidomidae 1 example 1 species Fam. Drassidae 557 examples 27 species (21 new) Totals: 1911 examples 66 species (46 new) Dr. SCHULTZE is to be congratulated on the large number of specimens obtained by him. The most extensive collections were made in Little Namaqualand, but a considerable number of specimens were also obtained in Great Namaqualand (including Possession Island) and in the Kalahari (in the Bechuanaland Protectorate), while a small number came from Southern Hereroland (S. Damaraland) and from the Cape Peninsula. With the exception of the last, all these localities represent practically new fields for the collector of Aranee, for, so far as I am aware, no extensive collections have ever been made in any of them before, and only a. few odd species have been recorded from time to time. Accordingly more than two-thirds of the total number of species described or identified in this paper are new to science, although the genera to which they belong are in all cases identical with those of the other and better known dry portions of the interior of Cape Colony. If the gregarious Eresidae (StegodyphuS) be excluded from the above list, it will be seen that the Drassidae are by far the most numerous both in individuals and species, being followed in number by the non-gregarious Eresidae and the Dysderidae. But it must be borne in mind that the underground Aviculariidae, particularly the Trap-door forms, were probably not collected as thoroughly as the other spiders, owing to the extreme difficulty generally experienced in discovering their retreats. Nevertheless Dr. SCHULTZE obtained at least 7 species, which may with confidence be placed among the trap-door building forms, belonging to the genera ldiops, Stasimopus, Pelmatorycter and Ancylotrypa. The two largest spiders obtained were a large Harpactira from Great and Little Namaqualand, and a new Ceratogyrus from the Kalahari, the latter having a peculiar horn in the middle of the cephalothorax above.
Evidence from archaeological fish bone assemblages from the southern North Sea region of Europe is used to illuminate fishing, fish consumption and fish trade from the 1st to the 16th century AD. The fish species represented in the material indicate a very strong influence from the local fish fauna at almost all sites. The species and size of the fish indicate that several fishing methods have been employed throughout the period studied, including nets, hooks and weirs. A chronological development in fishing, for example, a tendency towards more sea-going fishing, is reflected in the fish bone assemblages in some countlres. Evidence from fishing in the Baltic region from the 5th century BC to the 16th century AD is included in the discussion. Indications of fish trade include bones of exotic species (for instance, matinc species at inland sites) and an unbalanced representation of skeletal clements (trade with decapitated stockfish or gillless hering). Of particular interest are assemblages which indicate a fish industry, for instance, large-scale processing (removal of gills) of herring in 13th century Denmark.
Bienen sind wegen ihres Honigs beliebt und wegen ihrer Bestäubungsleistung wirtschaftlich unverzichtbar. Nicht nur in den Vereinigten Staaten nimmt das Bienensterben allerdings bisweilen dramatische Ausmaße an. Auch unsere heimischen Bienenvölker sind bedroht. Das hat eine Vielzahl von Forschungsprojekten zur Biologie der Biene und zu ihrem Schutz initiiert. Das Institut für Bienenkunde der Polytechnischen Gesellschaft und der Goethe-Universität in Oberursel untersucht in einem integrierten Forschungsansatz die kognitiven Leistungen von Bienen und wie sie durch Krankheit, Stress und Insektizidvergiftungen beeinträchtig werden.
Observations on fish scales
(1913)
Zwei neue Anophthalmen
(1895)