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Ahnenforschung unter sozialen Amöben : die morphologische Taxonomie muss umgeschrieben werden
(2007)
Seit fast 150 Jahren forschen Wissenschaftler aus aller Welt über den faszinierenden Wechsel zwischen Einzelligkeit und Vielzelligkeit im Lebenszyklus der »zellulären Schleimpilze«. Diese Forschung war bisher so erfolgreich, dass einem Vertreter der zellulären Schleimpilze, Dictyostelium discoideum, vom US-amerikanischen Gesundheitsministerium National Institutes of Health (NIH) ganz offiziell der Status eines Modellorganismus für biomedizinische Forschung verliehen wurde. Obwohl wir inzwischen glauben, viel über die »sozialen Amöben«, die sich bei Nahrungsmangel von Einzellern zu einem vielzelligen Verband zusammenlagern, gelernt zu haben, basiert unser Wissen doch fast ausschließlich auf Arbeiten mit der einen Art D. discoideum. Man kennt allerdings heute mehr als 100 Arten sozialer Amöben. Alle bilden multizelluläre Fruchtkörper aus, die aus Stielen und Sporenpaketen bestehen. Bisher ging man davon aus, dass die Spezies mit azellulären Stielen in ihren Fruchtkörpern phylogenetische Vorläufer der Vertreter mit zellulären Stielen sind, und dass die Vertreter mit verzweigten Fruchtkörpern näher mit sich selbst als mit den anderen sozialen Amöben verwandt sind. Diese Hypothesen wurden nun durch aktuelle molekulargenetische Analysen widerlegt.
Koalas are popular zoo animals, but difficult in husbandry. In addition to their specialised diet of eucalyptus leaves, they are prone to “stress” and disease. Particularly in European zoos, themonitoring of theirwell-being has high priority and they are protected from possible stressors. However, stress signs in koalas are vague and monitoring techniques like weighing might result in discomfort itself. Additionally, husbandry routines are planned according to keeper’s schedule, not to the endogenous rhythms of the koalas. Therefore it is necessary to investigate activity pattern in captive koalas and the signals influencing them. These signals have to be assessed on the strength and quality of their impact. A total of 17 koalas have been observed in three zoological gardens in Australia and Europe. Koalas kept in outdoor enclosures with little human contact (Koala Walkabout, Taronga Zoo, Sydney) showed a uniform activity pattern, which was clearly entrained by light. Activity levels were higher during the night, and there was a pronounced resting period in the morning which corresponds with low body temperature measured by Degabriele and Dawson (1979). Activity peaks were related to twilight and changed during the year related to day lengths. However, there was a clear influence from the introduction of fresh browse which resulted in a distinct feeding peak in the afternoon. With short day lengths, this stimulus competed with dusk. Activity patterns from koalas in indoor enclosures (Zoo Duisburg, Vienna Zoo) varied between individuals and in some cases lacked a detectable rhythm. Though activity peaks were related to light, entrainment to sunlight was weak. In winter, koalas reacted primarily to the artificial light, but some also showed activity peaks related to sunlight. Activity patterns in these koalas were less structured and differed severely from patterns expected according to literature. Activity was often related to the keeper’s presence and food introduction. Frequency of feeding bouts was considerably higher at Vienna Zoo compared to the other zoos and the bouts were shorter in duration. Time budgets of the koalas were within the range given in free-range studies. Feeding showed seasonal changes and was increased in lactating females. Koalas at Vinna Zoo had a high level of locomotor activity compared to the size of the enclosure. Koalas at Koala Walkabout were not used to handling, so they resisted the keeper. The koalas at the two European zoos were handled regularly and settled down quickly. However, handling took place in the morning; in most koalas, there was no activity prior to it. In Vienna, resting periods were interrupted daily due to weighing. Food introduction at KoalaWalkabout took place in the afternoon. It was preceded by locomotor activity and triggered a long feeding bout in the koalas. It is not clear, whether food had true Zeitgeber properties or masked the endogenous rhythm. In the two European zoos, food was introduced in the morning. The peaks related to this were smaller than those at Koala Walkabout. Activity was rarely observed prior to food introduction. The koalas at Koala Encounter, Taronga Zoo (Sydney),were regularly confronted with visitors, though no contact was allowed. Direct observation by the keepers did rarely show any stress signs. Activity patterns at night were strikingly similar to Koala Walkabout, but differed dramatically during the day. Food was introduced three times a day, which usually resulted in activity that interrupted a resting period. Generally, the koalas at Koala Encounter were more active than those at KoalaWalkabout. They also displayed a high level of locomotor activity, especially on the ground, which is an accepted sign of discomfort in koalas (Wood 1978; Zoological Society of San Diego 2001; Yusuf& Rosenthal unpublished data). In summary, this chronoethological study of the captive koalas showed that there are several problems with koala husbandry. Artificial light regimes for koalas are not sufficient for entrainment and result in unstructured activity pattern. This is especially the case in winter, when the day in Europe is artificially extended. Due to the mainly nocturnal behaviour of koalas, such an extension might not be necessary and therefore should be avoided. Handling in Europe took place during the physiological resting time of the koalas. Interruptions of resting times are considered as stressors (Wood 1978) and should be avoided. Handling in the afternoon would be more suitable for the koalas and triggered activity in the two koalas at Vienna Zoo. It is also arguable if daily weighing is necessary to monitor health in captive koalas or if the frequent interruption of resting countervail the advantages of constant monitoring. Frequent contact with visitors, evenwithout the so-called cuddling, has a considerable impact on activity patterns and time budget of koalas, even if no immediate stress signs are displayed. Such contact should therefore be reduced to a minimum and chronoethological observations of the koalas should be used. A study on koalas with direct visitor contact is also advisable to revise the current legislation on “koala cuddling”. Koalas frequently rested in living trees if they had access to it. Since no food-poisoning has been reported from koalas using living non-food trees, the provision of living trees with an appropriate canopy should be included in the husbandry guidelines. Increased locomotor activity has been shown to be related to conditions of discomfort or stress and possibly to oestrus. This is in accordance with literature (Wood 1978; Zoological Society of San Diego 2001). Further observation, combined with hormone analysis, are advisable to establish this parameter for evaluation of well-being. Chronoethology has proven to be useful for the evaluation of husbandry conditions and group dynamics. Different to other, traditional ethologicalmethods, it indicated problems and enabled me to advise more appropriate times for handling and food introduction. It is desirable that zoos already using 24-hour video observation include chronoethological aspects into their analysis.
Le système des Gobiidés
(1930)
Die im nachfolgenden aufgeführten Spinnen wurden im Jahre 1907 gesammelt durch die Expedition, die unter Leitung von Dr. H. A. LORENTNZ Niederländisch Südwest-Neu-Guinea besuchte und namentlich an dem Lorentz-(,Noord"-)Nuss arbeitete. Diese Sammlung erfuhr einen erfreulichen Zuwachs durch Material, das Dr. J. W. R. KOCH als Mitglied der von der Kön. Niederländischen Geographischen Gesellschaft im Jahre 1904/1905 nach Niederländisch Neu-Guinea gesandten Expedition an der Südküste, in Merauke, an der Südwestküste arn Digul-Fluss und an der Etna-Bucht sammelte. Die Fortsetzung der Bearbeitung des vorliegenden Materiales wird in einem zweiten Teil geschehen. Das Material endlich, das durch die zweite Expedition von Dr. H. A. LORENTZ in 1909/10 in demselben Gebiete wie seine erste Expedition von 1907 gesammelt wurde, ging mir erst nach Abschluss vorliegender Arbeit zu und soll späterhin bearbeitet werden.
Spinnen aus Nord-Neu-Guinea
(1911)
Die nachfolgend beschriebenen Spinnen wurden während der Monate Februar bis August 1903 im Norden von Niederländisch-Neu-Guinea gesammelt und zwar in erster Linie durch die Herrn L. F. DE BEAUFORT und H. A. LORENTZ, die beiden Zoologen der Niederländischen Expedition, die unter Leitung von Prof. A. WICHMANN im Jahre 1903 das genannte Gebiet untersuchte.
Die Termiten, von welchen gegenwärtig gegen 200 Arten bekannt geworden sind, bewohnen vorzugsweise die tropischen Esinder und die wärmeren Gegenden der Länder mit gemässigtern Klima. In Europa sind, abgesehen von der aus Nordamerika in die Sohönbrunner Treibhäuser eingeschleppten Art Termes flavipes KOLLAR nur zwei Arten einheimisch: Calotermes marginalis ROSSI (flavicollis FABR.), welche aus Portugal, Spanien, der Provence, Toskana, Neapel, Sardinien, Sizilien, Nordafrika, Syrien, Kleinasien und dem nordwestlichen Kaukasus mitgetheilt wurde und Termes lucifugus ROSSI, welche in Portugal, Spanien, der Provenoe, La Rochelle, Paris, Langres, Toskana, Sizilien, Nordafrika, Dalmatien, der Türkei, Griechenland, Cgpern, Beesarabien und Odessa gefunden worden ist. ...
Beschreibung der Larve und Puppe von Liponeura Brevirostris Löw (Dipterenfamilie Blepharoceridae)
(1881)
Über Ceratiten
(1848)
Die Arbeit stellt einen Beitrag zur Fauna von Rovigno dar. Sie enthält eine kritische Übersicht der in der Adria gefundenen Holothurienarten und einen Bestimmungsschlüssel, der sich hauptsachlich auf äußere Merkmale stützt. Der Bestimmungsschlüssel, die Beschreibung der Arten, sowie die Fundkarten und Abbildungen sollen das Auffinden und genaue Bestimmen der Holothurien ermöglichen. Daran schließen sich einige Bemerkungen über ihr Vorkommen in Abhängigkeit von der Meerestiefe und Bodenbeschaffenheit an. An verschiedenen Stellen sind biologische Notizen eingefügt, die sich auf die Lebensweise und Fortpflanzung (jedoch nicht auf Larvenformen, über die verhältnismäßig wenig bekannt ist) beziehen. Die Angaben über die Fortpflanzungszeit besitzen großes praktisches Interesse, weil neuerdings auch in der Adria einige Holothurienarten (H. tubulosa und polii) zur Herstellung von "Trepang" gefischt werden sollen. Da im Gegensatz zu anderen Meeren die Adria bei großem Artenreichtum sehr individuenarm ist, dürfte durch ungehemmtes Ausfischen in kurzer Zeit die Individuenzahl so stark herabgesetzt sein, daß sich ein Fischen gar nicht mehr lohnt. Es scheint daher notwendig, während der Hauptfortpflanzungszeiten dieser Arten streng durchzuführende Schonzeiten festzulegen. Die Arbeit stützt sich vor allem auf eigene Beobachtungen und Untersuchungen. Die meisten Tiere wurden längere Zeit hindurch in Aquarien gehalten und lebend beobachtet. Die voneinander stark abweichenden Beschreibungen der älteren Untersucher verlangten aber auch ein eingehendes Studium der Holothurien-Literatur der Adria. Die verwendete Literatur ist in dem Literaturverzeichnis aufgeführt.
In the ignorance which still prevails regarding many details of the breeding-habits of the Cuckoo, we have a goof object lesson of how well Nature is able to guard her secrets, since, after years of careful and methodical investigation by distinguished naturalists, comparatively few authentic facts have been established. ...
The North Arnerican species of the genus Cremastocheilus are reviewed. These belong to 5 subgenera, Macropodina, Trinodea, Anatinodia, Mymcotonus, and Cremastocheilus. Taxonomie changes are: She inclusion of Crernastocheilus nitens and C. chapini in the subgenus Cremastocheilus rather than Myrmecotonus. Also Anatinodia is elevated to subgeneric status. A key to the subgenera is provided, as is a key to the species of the 5 subgenera, recognizing that the 35 species in the subgenus Cremastocheilus are in need of revision. A critical review of the host records, geographic distribution, and ecology of the Tribe Crernastocheilini (Family Scarabaeidae. subfamily Cetoniinae) is provided. This contains enormous numbers of new records for both the genera Genuchinus and CremastocheiLus both from the literature and from the extensive field work that is reported here for the first time. A Summary of the host records is presented in tabular form. This table shows the association of all species of Cremastocheilus with ants as adults and the larvae either associated with the vegetable material of the ant nests or with vegetable material in rodent burrows. Genuchinus is shown to be a general predator on soft bodied insects while the other genera of the Cremastocheilini are associated with plants, particularly bromeliads. A detailed study of the external morphology and sexual dimorphism of the genera Genuchinus and Crernastocheilus is presented. All species of Cremastocheilus can be sexed with the naked eye by the difference in the shapes of the abdominal terminal Segments, wherein males have the posterior border of the last ventral abdominal segment either straight or slightly bowed, while females have this border broadly rounded. There are other microscopic sexual differences in the structure of the legs. The rest of the external morphology is also presented, particularly from the point of view of adaptations to either a predaceous or rnyrmecophilous existente. Particularly adapted for predation are the pointed maxillae which are used for piercing prey. Particularly adapted for myrmecophily are the mentum, the maxillae, the generally thick exoskeleton, trichomes on both the anterior and posterior angles of the pronotum, the elytra, and the legs (which are adapted to the nest substrate of the host ant nests. Exocrine glands are described for Genuchinus ineptus and at least 1 species of each of the 5 subgenera of Cremastocheilus. In general, there are no gland cells nor glandular areas in Genuchinuc that are comparable to those of Cremastocheilus. The gland cells and glandular areas are quite extensive andvariable arnong species of Cremastocheilus. The frontal gland of some Cremastocheilus (strongly developed in C. castaneus and the C. canaliculatus species group, but weakly developed in the C. wheeleri species group) is described for the first time. Because these glands are not found in Genuchinus ineptuc, a species with general predatory habits, it is thought that these play a role, as yet unknown, in interactions with ants. The life cycles of the subgenera of Cremastocheilus are described. The general life cycle entails adult beetles eclosing in ant nests during the summer and then undertaking dispersal flights. The adults then enter ant nests and ovenivinter there, eating ant larvae during the Winter. Another dispersal flight occurs in the spring during which the adults mate and enter ant nests again. The females then lay eggs and the adults die. The eggs hatch and the larvae spend 3 instars feeding upon vegetable material in the nests. The lmae then pupate in typical scarabaeine earthen cells made of fecal material and soil. These eclose in the summer and the cycle is repeated. Variation from species to species is largely in the timing. Leaving the nest in late Summer, mating seems to be triggered by rainfall in all the species studied. Mating of C. (Macropodina) beameri takes place in rodent burrows. Males seem attracted to females from a distance but the mechanism of this remains obscure. In the subgenus Trinodia, mating takes place on sandy washes or roadsides where females land. In the subgenus Myrmecotonus, maüng also takes place in sandy areas. In C. (Cremastocheilus) mating takes place on sand bars along rivers in the southeastern U.S. and in sand dunes in northeastern U.S. The femaies dig down into the sand. Males locate these places by some unknown mechanism and then dig down to copulate with the females. Field experiments showed unequivocaily that males dig only into areas occupied by females. No sex-specific Sex attractant glands have been located in females so far. Dispersal to ant nests occurs after mating except for C. (Macropodina) beameri which lays its eggs in the rodent burrows and then probably disperses to ant nests. Beetle activity going in and out of nests was studied using wire hardware cloth screens over entrances to Mynnecocystus nests. The mesh size was such that the ants could move freely in or out but the beetles got stuck by their thoraces. The direction then could be interpreted by the direction in which they got stuck. By this method, C. stathamae was shown to leave nests from 23 June to 1 September with a peak on 6 July, just after the beginning of the summer rains. Beetles entered nests from June 23 to August 3, however 39% entered on July 16, probably pulsed by the leaving time which was correlated with the rains. Life cycle timing: C. (Macropodina) develop in the nests of Wood rats (Neotoma sp.]. Females lay about 40 eggs each. The 3 larval instars to pupation take about 1 month. Pupae are found from late August to weil into September. In other subgenera as well, larvae are found in parts of the nest devoid of ants, The timing is similar in all the subgenera found with ants. Mortality factors: While ants attack Cremastocheilus adults, there is no evidence that they are ever killed by ants nor is there evidence that ants kill larvae nor hard earthen pupae cases which protect the pupae. During dispersal fiights and mating, the adults are exposed to predation and evidence is presented that shows predation by horned toads, spiders, magpies, and tiger beetles. Probably most mortality occurs in the larval and pupd stages where the beetles are attacked by internal parasites and fungus. Further rnortality is caused by limitation of the food supply during the larval stage. Reentering nests: Females of C. (Macropodina) beameri select specific rodent and other burrows, attract males for rnating. and then enter the burrow for oviposition. C. stathamae are carried into the ants nests from as far away as 25ft. The beetles appear to land spontaneously after flying randomly over M. depilis nesting areas. Then the wander about waiting for the ants to carry them into the nests. Cremastocheilus hirsutus fly low over the ground searching for Pogonomyrrnex barbatus nests, land. and move straight for the nest entrances which they enter unhindered. Among all species, the ants frequently eject beetles but the net rnovement is in. Ants frequently attacked Cremastocheilus in laboratory observation nests when they were introduced. These attacks seldom resulted in the death of the beetles and the beetles were eventually ignored. When the beetles entered brood chambers, where they fed upon larvae, they were mostly ignored and even licked assiduously by the ants. A principle defensive behavior by the beetles is feigning death (letisimulation). The beetles give off an unpleasant "dead fish odor when collected in the I field. Experiments show that this substance functions to fend off some predators but further experiments indicated that these substances were ineffective against both ants and kangaroo rats. Experiments with various species of Cremastocheilus adults indicate that the adults eat only ant larvae. The beetles will eat larvae of non-host ants but show preferences for the larvae of their normal hosts. Under the same experimental conditions. Genuchinus ineptus adults will feed on a variety of insect adults and larvae. Field experiments on the function of trichome secretions did not indicate that they function to attract ants at a distance nor are they involved in worker acceptance. Laboratory experiments in which areas with a high concentration of gland cells were presented to ants showed that no ants were attracted. Laboratory introduction of Cremastocheilus hamisii adults into Fomica schau.si nests yielded many interactions including ants licking the anterior pronotal angles, the mentum area where the frontal glands empty and a carina over the eye with a dense pad of short setae. These are areas of concentration of gland cells and these are the first observations of licking by ants in specific sites containing exocrine glands. Radioisotope experiments showed food exchange among ants but never from ants to beetles. Other experiments showed that ants can pick up radioactivity from the beetles without feeding on trichome secretions. Evolutionary pathways: Adult Cremastocheilini probably followed the evolutionary route from adult predation on soft bodied insects to specialized feeding upon ant brood and the subsequent development of the beetle larvae in vegetable material in the ant colonies. Thus Genuchininseptus makes a logical outgroup in that they are general predators probably feeding mostly on Diptera larvae associated with Sotol plants in the field. The rnajor evolutionary step taken by Cremastocheiluswas to specialize on ant brood. Then the species radiated into ant colonies inhabiting southwestem North Arnenca. Most of the ant hosts invaded have quantities of vegetable material in their nests sufficient to support several developing scarab larvae. Host colonies are large, contain accessible brood, and are usually dominant foragers Evidence supports the idea that the species of Cremastocheilus have differentes in behavior and morphology that reflect adaptation to the behavioral ecology of different species of ants rather than different evolutionary levels of integration into ant colonies.
Rhizostomen von Ambon
(1898)
Die im Folgenden behandelten Rhizostomen wurden bei der Insel Ambon (Molukken) im Januar und Februar 1893 von Herrn Prof. R. SEMON gesammelt. Die Sammlung enthält 34 wohl erhaltene Individuen, die sich mit je einer Art auf 8 Genera vertheilen. Davon waren 2, den Polyrhiziden angehörige Gattungen noch nicht bekannt, Cassiopeja und Toxoclytus, letztere bisher nur im Atlantischen und - wenn wir die fragliche Cephea Dubreuillii von Reynaud auch zu Toxoclytus ziehen wollen - irn Indischen Ozean gefunden, sind in je einer neuen Art vertreten. Die umfangreiche, mehrere Originale (zum Theil aus den Museum GODEFPROY) enthaltende Rhizostomensammlung des Zoologischen Instituts in Jena und des Museums für Naturkunde zu Berlin, für deren Benutzung ich Herrn Geh. Rath MÖBIUS und Herrn Dr. W. WELTNER zu grosseln Dank verpflichtet bin, lieferten mir werthvoIles Vergleichsmaterial. Bei der anatomischen und systematischen Vergleichung ging ich in erster Linie auf die grundlegende Monographie der Medusen von HAECKEL zurück, die dessen System und untereinander sich befehdenden Vorschläge von CLAUS und VANHÖFFEN zur Kontrolle jeder einzelnen Bestimmung heranziehend.
Neue Käfer vom Amur
(1879)
Neue Acariden
(1879)
Es sind vorzüglich die Engländer, die über die therapeutische Anwendung des Ammonium bromntum gearbeitet haben und dasselbe als nützlich in versohiedenen Nervenleiden preisen. (Gibb, Ritchie, Harley , Belgrave). Wir benutzten dasselbe auch vielfach in der Kinderklinik in Petersburg und besonders beim Keuchhusten, aber wenn wir auch einigermaassen die Krankheits-Anfälle abnehmen sahen, so trat diese Abnahme doch lange nicht in dem Grade ein, wie sie Gibb beobachtet haben will, und wonach er das Präparat als Radicalmittel gegen den Keuchhusten empfehlen zu können glaubt. Die Meinungen über die Art der Wirkung dieses Mittels sind getheilt. Belgrave will demselben die Wirkung des Kalium bromatum zuschreiben, nur in etwas geringerem Grade; Gibb vindicirt für dasselbe eine besondere Einwirkung auf die Empfindungsnerven des Schlundes; Binz, der es in einer Keuchhusten-Epidemie viel benutzte, behauptet, dass dasselbe gar keine Vorzüge vor dem Salmiak haben soll. Wir sahen uns daher veranlasst, um die Wirkung dieses Mittels genauer zu ermitteln, eine Reihe von Untersuchungen an verschiedenen Thieren anzustellen, und wir wollen hier kurz die Resultate dieser Untersuchungen mittheilen.
Background The Radical Pair model proposes that magnetoreception is a light-dependent process. Under low monochromatic light from the short-wavelength part of the visual spectrum, migratory birds show orientation in their migratory direction. Under monochromatic light of higher intensity, however, they showed unusual preferences in other directions or axial preferences. To determine whether or not these responses are still controlled by the respective light regimes, European robins, Erithacus rubecula, were tested under UV, Blue, Turquoise and Green light at increasing intensities, with orientation in migratory direction serving as a criterion whether or not magnetoreception works in the normal way. Results Under low light with a quantal flux of 8 times 10 to 15 power quanta s-1 m-2, the birds were well oriented in their seasonally appropriate migratory direction under 424 nm Blue, 502 nm Turquoise and 565 nm Green light, indicating unimpaired magnetoreception. Under 373 nm UV of the same quantal flux, they were not oriented in migratory direction, showing a preference of the east-west axis instead, but they showed excellent orientation in migratory direction under UV of lower intensity. Intensities of above 36 times 10 to 15 power quanta s-1 m-2 of Blue, Turquoise and Green light elicited a variety of responses: disorientation, headings along the east-west axis, headings along the north-south axis or 'fixed' direction tendencies. These responses changed as the intensity was increased from 36 times 10 to the 15 power quanta s-1 m-2 to 54 and 72 times 10 to 15 power quanta s-1 m-2. Conclusion The specific manifestation of responses in directions other than migratory direction clearly depends on the ambient light regime. This implies that although mechanisms normally providing magnetic compass information seem disrupted, processes that are activated by light still control the behavior. It suggests complex interactions between different types of receptors, magnetic and visual. The nature of the receptors involved and details of their connections are not yet known; however, a role of the color cones in the processes mediating magnetic input is suggested.
Ziel dieser Arbeit ist es, einen Überblick über die Verhaltensweisen zoolebender Zwergschimpansen (Pan paniscus Schwarz 1929) zu geben. Dabei nimmt die Beschreibung des Sozialverhaltens eine zentrale Stellung ein. Dieser Aspekt ist von besonderem Interesse, weil die Zwergschimpansen oder Bonobos durch eine regelmäßige Überflutung großer Teile ihres Lebensraumes zu einer stärker arborealen Lebensweise gezwungen sind (s. HOFW 1975) als die zweite Schiopansenart, Pan troglodytes. Das läßt neben morphologischen auch ethologische Anpassungen an ein Baumleben erwarten, und zwar sowohl in Bereichen wie Lokomotion etc.. als auch in Bezug auf das Sozialverhalten. Gerade auf diesem Gebiet aber ist unser ohnehin bruchstückhaftes Wissen über die Ethologie des Bonobo besonders gering....
Durch Beobachtungen individuell farbmarkierter Meisen und Kleiber an einer Futterstelle zwischen Sommer und Frühjahr konnte erstmals die Struktur gemischter Meisenschwärme und ihre Veränderung im Jahresverlauf systematisch analysiert werden. Nur im Winter bilden sich sehr kompakte Schwärme von durchschnittlich 27 Individuen, die sich schnell fortbewegen und nur zehn bis fünfzehn Minuten an der Futterstelle verweilen. Ihr Auftreten ist sowohl mit der Tageslänge als auch direkt mit der Temperatur korreliert. Eine Erniedrigung der Temperatur führt zu einem engeren Zusammenschluß der Individuen, vor allem auch verschiedener Arten. Dieses Verhalten ermöglicht eine effizientere Nahrungssuche, weil die Individuen von den Kenntnissen der übrigen Schwarmmitglieder über Nahrungsquellen profitieren und weil sie weniger Zeit zum Sichern aufwenden müssen. Die Schwarmgröße ist jedoch nicht temperaturabhängig. Sie wächst mit der Anzahl der Individuen, die an einem Tag die Futterstelle nutzen. Demnach erweitern die Individuen im Winter ihre Aktionsräume, vermutlich aufgrund des erhöhten Nahrungsbedarfs. Dadurch begegnen sich mehr Individuen bei der Nahrungssuche und bilden größere Schwärme. Die individuelle Zusammensetzung der Schwärme verändert sich dabei ständig. Es gibt keine Gruppen fester Zusammensetzung, die auch nur tage- oder stundenweise zusammen blieben. Während die Neigung der Individuen, sich anderen Meisen anzuschließen, im Winter sehr stark ist, spielen individuelle Bindungen für die Schwarmbildung offensichtlich keine Rolle. Dieser offenen Struktur der Schwärme entsprechend, wurde bei der Kohlmeise, die den größten Anteil an den gemischten Schwärmen hatte, nur eine schwach entwickelte, nicht strikt lineare Rangordnung gefunden. Lediglich das Männchen, in dessen Brutrevier die Futterstelle lag, war allen anderen Individuen eindeutig überlegen. Territorialität beeinflußte bei Männchen und Weibchen die Aggressivität. Männchen sind aggressiver als Weibchen, jedoch nicht immer dominanter, das Alter spielt für die Dominanz keine Rolle. Männchen sind um so dominanter, je schwerer sie sind. Männchen, die bis Ende Juli im Gebiet eintreffen oder im Vorjahr schon ansässig waren, sind dominanter als Männchen, die erst ab Oktober eintreffen. Bei jungen Männchen wird die Dominanz hauptsächlich von der Aggressivität bestimmt. Die einzige nachweisbare individuelle Bindung bei Kohlmeisen in Winterschwärmen ist die Paarbindung, die im Gegensatz zu bisherigen Vermutungen bereits ab Oktober besteht. Die Wahl von Freßkumpanen ist dennoch nicht völlig beliebig. Männchen meiden einander, und Weibchen ziehen andere Weibchen als Freßkumpaninnen vor, weil sie von Männchen vom Futter verdrängt werden könnten. Bei einander bereits bekannten Brutvögeln ist dies jedoch nicht festzustellen. Männchen, die sich gegenseitig einschätzen können, meiden einander nicht grundsätzlich. Auch verpaarte Weibchen meiden bekannte Männchen nicht. Sie profitieren vielleicht auch vom Status ihres Männchens. Sowohl die schwach ausgeprägte Rangordnung als auch das Fehlen individuell aneinander gebundener Gruppen bei Kohlmeisen widerspricht der einzigen systematischen Freilanduntersuchung zur Sozialstruktur der Kohlmeise, die in einer Population der japanischen Unterart P. m. minor feste Gruppen konstanter Zusammensetzung fand. Ein selektiver Vorteil von Gruppen konstanter Zusammensetzung ist nicht zu erkennen, da keine gemeinsamen Territorien verteidigt werden und sich Individuen verschiedener Gruppen frei mischen. Die zwischenartliche Dominanzstruktur in den gemischten Schwärmen war eindeutig. Kleiber, die sich einzeln oder paarweise Meisenschwärmen anschließen, dominieren alle Meisenarten, Kohlmeisen dominieren Blau- und Sumpfmeisen. Letztere sind allen anderen Arten unterlegen. Dementsprechend bevorzugen Sumpf- und Blaumeisen Artgenossen als Freßkumpane. Kohlmeisen ziehen jedoch die schwächeren Blaumeisen ihren eigenen Artgenossen vor. Dominante Arten profitieren von der gemeinsamen Nahrungssuche mit untergeordneten Arten, weil sich die Nahrungskonkurrenz, die mit der Schwarmbildung immer verbunden ist, auf sie weniger negativ auswirkt. Als schwächste Art bleiben die Sumpfmeisen innerhalb gemischter Schwärmen meist deutlich unter sich und mischen sich nur im Winter stärker mit anderen Arten. Durch den erhöhten Nahrungsbedarf und die stark herabgesetzte Aggressivität der Individuen in dieser Zeit übersteigt dann der Vorteil großer Schwärme für die Nahrungssuche den Nachteil der Konkurrenz auch für unterlegene Individuen.
The objective of this study is the avifauna of the North American Green River Formation. Five new Green River bird species as well as several new specimens of already known species are described. * Galliformes: Gallinuloides wyomingensis EASTMAN 1900 A second specimen of the galliform Gallinuloides wyomingensis could be identified. Gallinuloides wyomingensis resembles closely Paraortygoides MAYR 1999, which is known from Messel and the London Clay. The new specimen exhibits characters such as a cup-like cotyla scapularis of the coracoid that clearly indicate that Gallinuloides is a stem-group representative of galliforms. * Eurypygidae: Eoeurypyga olsoni gen. et sp. nov. Eoeurypyga is the only fossil representative of the Eurypygidae. Eoeurypyga and the modern sunbittern Eurypyga helias share the typical long bill, the caudally situated neck and the elongated vertebrae cervicales. Additional synapomorph characters were found. The new species indicates a North American origin for the Eurypygidae. * Messelornithidae: Messelornis nearctica HESSE 1992 The original description of Messelornis nearctica was based on a single specimen. Ten new specimens, described in this study, reveal additional information. Messelornis nearctica shows the same large intraspecific size range as Messelornis cristata HESSE 1988 from Messel, the type species of the genus. * Apodidae: Wyomingcypselus pohli gen. nov. sp. nov. Wyomingcypselus pohli is the first described fossil apodiform bird for North American. Due to characters of the wing, especially the position of the processus musculi extensor metacarpi radialis, Wyomingcypselus is referrred to the Apodidae. * Trogoniformes: unnamed species The Green River birds include a poorly preserved, but apparently heterodactyl specimen, which also resembles trogons in overall appearance. * Primobucconidae: Primobucco mcgrewi BRODKORB 1970 Originally, Primobucco mcgrewi was only known from a partial skeleton consisting of the right wing. Three new specimens could be referred to the species. Primobucco mcgrewi clearly exhibits an anisodactyl foot, which makes the assignment to the zygodactyl Bucconidae highly doubtful. Instead, Primobucco mcgrewi is referrred to the Coraciiformes s.s. Thus, Primobucconidae are the first New World representatives of stem-group Coraciiformes. * ?Leptosomidae: Plesiocathartes wyomingensis sp. nov. and Plesiocathartes major sp. nov. Plesiocathartes wyomingensis and Plesiocathartes major represent the first North American record for the genus. Both species exhibit the diagnostic characters for the Leptosomidae as listed by MAYR (2002a, b). * Primoscenidae: Eozygodactylus americanus gen. et sp. nov. and unnamed species Eozygodactylus americanus is the first North American member of this taxon. Both Eozygodactylus americanus and the unnamed species show the zygodactyl foot and the large processus intermetacarpalis of the carpometacarpus, which are typical for Primoscendiae. Due to differences mainly of the humerus, it was placed in a new genus. Besides the descriptionof new species, the avifauna of the Green River Formatin was studied and compared with the avifauna of Messel. The formations show a high concordance, more than 60 % of the Green River taxa also occur in Messel. Such a high concordance is also found for mammals. This is due to the existence of two landbridges, the Thule landbridge and the de Geer landbridge, between Europe and North America during the early Eocene.
Nachstehend folgt mit Beschreibung der neuen Arten eine Zusammenstellung aller vom herrn EDM. KOVÁCS für das Ungarische National-Museum in den Jahren 1911 und 1912 in Abessynien gesammelten Chloropiden, die in ihrer Gesammtheit geeignet sind, ein Bild von der Reichhaltigkeit der dortigen Fauna zu geben. ...
Seit meiner letzten Arbeit über diese Gruppe (Stettin. E. Z. 1902 p. 3-57) sind mir wieder eine ganze Anzahl neuer Formen bekannt geworden, Es scheint, daß die weit verbreiteten Arten in den einzelnen Regionen ihres Verbreitungsgebietes Lokalrassen bilden, die sich oft recht erheblich von anderen Rassen derselben Art unterscheiden. Auch haben viele Arten, wie ich aus einigen guten Sammelausbeuten von Ecuador, Honduras und Guatemala ersehen konnte, ein weit größeres Verbreitungsgebiet, als es nach der ersten Beschreibung schien. Vorläufig fehlt es uns hauptsächlich aus Südamerika noch zu sehr mit Material mit gnauen Fundortangaben, um eine zusammenhängende Bearbeitung dieser Gruppe zu können. Im Folgenden gebe ich kurz die Beschreibung einiger neuen Arten.
Während über die Entwickelungsgeschichte der Crustaceen und Insecten schon eine ansehnliche Literatur vorhanden ist und beständig nene Arbeiten erscheinen, haben sich nur sehr wenige Autoren (vorzüglich NEWPORT, METSCHNIKOW und in letzter Zeit HEATHCOTE) mit der Embryologie der Myriapoden beschäftigt. Diese relative Vernachlässigung dürfte zum Theil in der ungenügenden Kenntniss der Biologie der Tausendfüssler eine Erklärung finden, da ohne genaiie Eenntniss der Lebensgewohnheiten dieser Thiere zur Zeit der Fortpflanzung die Beschaffung der Eier (und vor allem der frisch befruchteten) so gut wie unmöglich ist. Manche der diesbezüglichen Angaben der Literatur sind ungenau oder geradezu falsch, und viele richtige und schätzenswerthe Angaben älterer Autoren, von denen ich STEIN, NEWPORT, GERVAIS und besonders FABRE hervorheben will, sind nahezu in Vergessenheit gerathen. Der Zweck dieser Arbeit geht dahin, eine zusammenhängende Reihe von eigenen sorgfältigen Untersuchungen über die Biologie,insbesondere die Fortpflanzung der einheimischen Diplopoden bekannt zu geben. Dem biologischen Theil will ich eine kurze allgemeine anatomische Beschreibung des Geschlechtsapparates der Diplopoden voranschicken, und bei der Besprechung der einzelnen Familien werde ich auf den Bau des Geschlechtsapparates etwas näher eingehen. ...
Die vorliegende Arbeit enthält ein Verzeichniss jener Crocodil-Schildkröten- und Eidechsen-Arten, welche bis zur Gegenwart als Bewohner Deutsch-Ost-Afrikas erkannt worden sind. Unter ihnen wurden dabei diejenigen, welche erst nach dem Erscheinen meines Buches: "Die Kriechthiere Deutsch-Ost-Afrikas", Berlin 1897, daselbst entdeckt wurden, durch Bezeichnung mit einem Stern (*) besonders hervorgehoben. Ferner enthält die Liste auch die Fundorte aller Exemplare dieser Arten, die seit dem Erscheinen jenes Buches bis zum August 1900 ins Museum für Naturkunde zu Berlin eingeliefert wurden, und daneben noch die Fundorte von Objecten, die dem Naturwissenschaftlichen Verein des Reg.-Bez. Frankfurt a. 0. angehören, von mir aber bestimmt worden sind. Um diese Thiere kenntlich zu machen, führe ich sie unter dem Zeichen F0 an. Nach Zusammenstellung dieser Liste ergab sich daraus, dass nunmehr aus Deutsch-Ost-Afrika 1 Crocodil, 7 Schildkrötenarten mit 1 Varietät und 65 Eidechsenarten mit etwa 14 Varietäten sicher nachgewiesen worden sind. ...
Zur Biologie der Diplopoden
(1891)
In an effort to link quantitative morphometric information with molecular data on the population level, we have analysed 19 populations of the conchologically variable land snail Candidula unifasciata from across the species range for variation in quantitative shell traits and at the mitochondrial 16S ribosomal (r)DNA locus. In genetic analysis, including 21 additional populations, we observed two fundamental haplotype clades with an average pairwise sequence divergence of 0.209 ± 0.009 between clades compared to 0.017 ± 0.012 within clades, suggesting the presence of two different evolutionary lineages. Integrating additional shell material from the Senckenberg Malacological Collection, a highly significant discriminant analysis on the morphological shell traits with fundamental haplotype clades as grouping variable suggested that the less frequent haplotype corresponds to the described subspecies C. u. rugosiuscula, which we propose to regard as a distinct species. Both taxa were highly subdivided genetically (FST = 0.648 and 0.777 P < 0.001). This was contrasted by the partition of morphological variance, where only 29.6% and 21.9% of the variance were distributed among populations, respectively. In C. unifasciata, no significant association between population pairwise FST estimates and corresponding morphological fixation indices could be detected, indicating independent evolution of the two character sets. Partial least square analysis of environmental factors against shell trait variables in C. u. unifasciata revealed significant correlations between environmental factors and certain quantitative shell traits, whose potential adaptational values are discussed.
Population structure was estimated in a continuous population of a small land snail (Trochoidea geyeri). Mark-recapture experiments and randomly amplified polymorphic DNA analyses indicate that the population structure can be described by the isolation by distance model of Wright (1946). Estimates of density and dispersal suggest a neighbourhood size of 70-208 individuals on an area of 13-21 m². A principal component analysis of the randomly amplified polymorphic DNA data reveals clinal variation of genetic composition across the population, as predicted by the neighbourhood concept. An analysis of molecular variance indicates substantial genetic structuring. Comparisons of the genetic distances, expressed as euclidean distances among individuals, versus the geographic distance between sampling sites yield a highly significant positive correlation (Mantel test: r = 0.567, p<0.0001). The revealed pattern of populational subdivision on a microgeographic scale seems to be one of the principal processes generating and maintaining genetic diversity within populations of small land gastropods.
In the present study the population genetic structure of the terrestrial snail Pomatias elegans was related to habitat structure on a microspatial scale. The genetic variability of 1607 individuals from 51 sampling sites in five different populations in Provence, France, was studied with an allozyme marker using population genetic methods, Mantel tests and spatial autocorrelation techniques were applied to different connectivity networks accounting for the structural features of the landscape. It is suggested that the population structure is, to a large extent, a function of the habitat quality, quantified as population density, and of the spatial arrangement of the habitat in the landscape and not of the geographical distance per se. In fragmented habitats, random genetic drift was the prevailing force for sampling sites separated by a few hundred meters.
Length variations of repetitive sequences in different AT-rich loop-coding regions of mitochondrial 16S rDNA in two gastropod species were discovered during intraspecific haplotype surveys. Examination of the discrete length variation of the basic repeat unit in a phylogenetic framework led to the conclusion of a microsatellite-like mutational dynamic. The observations suggest that the presence of a repetitive sequence structure alone is sufficient to trigger this dynamic.
I analysed the importance of shell size, shell shape, habitat preferences and availability, experienced climate, active dispersal and influence of Pleistocene glaciations for the range sizes of 37 Western Palaearctic Helicidae s.l. species for which a phylogeny was available. In both cross-species and phylogenetically controlled analyses, the range sizes were positively correlated to climatic tolerance, shell size, active dispersal and influence of Pleistocene glaciations. In addition, range sizes increased significantly with latitude. Multiple regression suggested that, predominantly, the influence of Pleistocene glaciations, tolerance to large annual temperature ranges and shell size influenced the distributional range sizes. Habitat preference, range and availability, active dispersal and shell shape explained no additional variance. The results suggest that the processes influencing species range size of the Helicidae s.l. are mainly related to the climatic shifts after the Pleistocene.
Im Gegensatz zu den Arbeiterinnen der sozial lebenden Wespen und Bienen sind alle Ameisen flügellos. Die Flügellosigkeit der Ameisenarbeiterinnen bedingt, dass selbst kleinste Räume in der Erde oder in Holz von Kolonien besiedelt werden können. Sie war eine wichtige Voraussetzung für ihre Vorherrschaft auf dem Boden. Die für bodennistende Arten als Baumaterial in Frage kommende Erde hat jedoch die Eigenschaft, dass z. B. starke Regenfälle die Stabilität der Bauwerke negativ beeinflussen können. Deshalb und weil Erde in den höheren Regionen des Laubdaches schwierig zu beschaffen ist, sind Erdnester für den Übergang zum Leben in den Baumkronen wenig geeignet. Höhlungen in verrottendem Holz stehen aufgrund der schnellen Zersetzung in den Tropen nur für einen relativ kurzen Zeitraum und wenig regelhaft zur Verfügung. Der dadurch vorherrschende Mangel an Nistraum im tropischen Regenwald ist möglicherweise der wichtigste Faktor der Koloniegrößeregelung bei Ameisen. Erst mit dem Übergang zu aktivem Freinestbau ist es den Ameisen gelungen, sich (i) unabhängig von natürlichen Höhlen zu machen und dadurch große Kolonien zu etablieren, (ii) den Kronenraum als Habitat dauerhaft zu erschließen, (iii) negativen Witterungseinflüssen entgegenzuwirken und (iv) vorhandene Nahrungsressourcen in diesem Stratum permanent zu nutzen. Die in der vorliegenden Arbeit untersuchten freinestbauenden Ameisen sind selbst in der Lage, additiv Nistraum zu schaffen. Die Vertreter dieser Gilde legen ihre Nester nicht in der Erde oder in natürlichen oder selbst ,ausgeräumten-- Hohlräumen von Bäumen an, sondern konstruieren aktiv frei in der Laubregion der Holzgewächse Nisträume bzw. Unterstände, indem sie Material zusammentragen oder herstellen, mit dem eine Abschottung des Brut- und Nahrungsraumes gegenüber der Umwelt erreicht wird. Die erfolgreiche Besiedlung der Kronenregion war den Ameisen nur durch veränderte Bautechniken und eine verbesserte und angepasste Materialverwendung möglich. Gegenstand der vorliegenden Dissertation war zunächst die Bestandsaufnahme der freinestbauenden Ameisen der Baumkronenregion südostasiatischer Regenwälder. Der erste Schritt einer Analyse der Freinestkonstruktionen von Ameisen bestand darin, die Vielfältigkeit der verwirklichten Nestformen zu erfassen und darzustellen, Gemeinsamkeiten und Unterschiede herauszuarbeiten und die beteiligten Ameisenarten zu identifizieren. Im zweiten Teil der Arbeit wurden intensiv die proximaten Mechanismen des aktiven Nest- und Pavillonbaus untersucht. Dazu wurden die einzelnen Schritte der Nestentwicklung für sieben Ameisenarten aus sechs Gattungen in allen Details dargestellt und zusammenfassend beschrieben. Es wurde ermittelt, welche Baumaterialien die verschiedenen Ameisen nutzen und wie diese Materialien verwendet werden. Zur Bestimmung der verschiedensten Nesttypen wurden neben architektonischen Unterschieden auch Differenzen in der Substratwahl, Materialbeschaffenheit und in der Funktion der Nestkonstruktionen berücksichtigt. Als weiteres Kriterium zur Klassifikation arborealer Nestanlagen diente die Verschiedenartigkeit der Materialbearbeitung und der Substratvorbereitungen durch die Ameisen. Einige dieser Nestcharakteristika sind quantitativer, andere qualitativer Natur. Im Verlauf der Untersuchung wurden 1767 Kolonien bearbeitet und eingeordnet. Davon konnten insgesamt 100 Arten bzw. Morphospezies bestimmt und als echte Freinestbauer im Sinne der vorher formulierten Definition charakterisiert werden. Die ermittelten Arten verteilten sich auf acht Gattungen aus den drei Unterfamilien Formicinae, Dolichoderinae und Myrmicinae. Diese drei Unterfamilien gelten als die am weitesten entwickelten Ameisen und dominieren in der Kroneregion tropischer Regenwälder. Auffallend an dieser höher entwickelten Gruppe von Ameisen ist die Tendenz, pflanzliche Produkte als Hauptnahrungsressource zu nutzen. Die artenreichste Gattung Polyrhachis (39 Arten) gehört der Unterfamilie Formicinae an; zusammen mit den Gattungen Camponotus (10) und Oecophylla (1) wurden allein 50 Arten aus dieser Unterfamilie gefunden. In der Gattung Camponotus konnten zwei Untergattungen (C. Karavaievia, C. Myrmotarsus) mit freinestbauenden Arten ermittelt werden. Mit 29 identifizierten Arten aus drei Gattungen stellten die Myrmicinae die zweitgrößte Unterfamilie, wobei allein 23 Arten auf die Gattung Crematogaster entfielen. In den beiden anderen Myrmicinen-Gattungen Monomorium (5 Arten) und Myrmicaria (1 Art) fanden sich nur vergleichsweise wenige Vertreter mit Freinestbau. Die dritte Unterfamilie, die Dolichoderinae, wird durch die Gattungen Dolichoderus und Technomyrmex mit zusammen 21 Arten repräsentiert. Die als Freinestbauer ermittelten Ameisenarten zeigen hinsichtlich ihrer Koloniestruktur und Nestorganisation einige nennenswerte Parallelen. Die Mehrzahl der Arten lebt in polydomen Kolonieverbänden, die ihre manchmal mehr als 200 Nestanlagen meist nur auf eine einzelne oder wenige Nestpflanzen verteilen. In den Gattungen Camponotus und Monomorium sind alle Arten polydom organisiert, bei Dolichoderus und Technomyrmex sind es 90 % und bei Crematogaster 70 %. Polydomie findet man auch bei Myrmicaria arachnoides und Oecophylla smaragdina. Als weitere Gemeinsamkeit fällt ins Auge, dass mit Ausnahme von Myrmicaria arachnoides und Polyrhachis spp. funktionell als Stallnester zu charakterisierende Nestkonstruktionen überwiegen. Insbesondere bei Technomyrmex (100 %), Dolichoderus (100 %), Camponotus (70 %), Crematogaster (82 %), aber auch bei Monomorium (100 %) und Oecophylla smaragdina besteht eine ausgeprägte Tendenz, die Honigtau liefernden Trophobionten und die Brut in denselben Bauten unterzubringen. Bei den meisten Arten besteht somit ein enger Zusammenhang zwischen Freinestbau und trophobiotischer Ernährungsweise. Diese enge räumliche Vereinigung von Nahrungs- und Nistressourcen bildet die Basis für die Entwicklung individuenreicher, konkurrenzstarker und ökologisch dominanter Ameisenarten in der Kronenregion. Insgesamt wurden 22 unterscheidbare Nesttypen ermittelt und in allen Einzelheiten dargestellt. Auf 47 Bildtafeln wurden dazu fotografisch und zeichnerisch die Charakteristika der verschiedenen Nesttypen hinsichtlich der Nestarchitektur und ethologischer Besonderheiten der beteiligten Ameisenarten abgebildet. Während die Anzahl der freinestbauenden Ameisenarten sicherlich nur annähernd erfasst werden konnte, ist bei der Darstellung der verschiedenen Nesttypen zu erwarten, dass die erfolgreichsten, auf der Basis ethoökologischer sowie material- und substrattechnischer Unterschiede ermittelten Erscheinungsformen aufgeklärt werden konnten. Die vorgenommene Unterteilung der Hauptkategorie ,Nestsubstrat-- in drei blattgebundene und zwei stammgebundene Unterkategorien zeigte, dass die zweifach geschützte und materialsparende Position zwischen Blättern, von zusammen 13 Arten aus den Gattungen Polyrhachis (6), Camponotus (Karavaievia) (2), Oecophylla (1) und Crematogaster (3) präferiert wurde. Nester auf der vergleichsweise ungeschützten Blattoberseite wurden nur von Arten der Gattung Polyrhachis gebaut. Die bevorzugte Position der Polyrhachis-Nester war auf der Blattunterseite, 67 % aller Polyrhachis Nester waren dort lokalisiert. Die Nester der Untergattung Camponotus (Karavaievia) waren zu 75 % und die von Technomyrmex, Monomorium und Myrmicaria gar zu 100 % auf der Blattunterseite angebracht. Zusammen betrachtet waren 64 % aller im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit aufgenommenen Nestbauten auf der Unterseite einzelner Blätter zu finden. Von allen Nestbauten auf Stamm- und Astoberflächen waren 75 % von Crematogaster-Arten besiedelt. Diese Nestposition konnte ansonsten nur noch bei zwei Polyrhachis-Arten und bei der mit Epiphyten assoziierten Camponotus (Myrmotarsus) gefunden werden. Je nach Anteil der hauptsächlich verarbeiteten Baustoffe kann man in vier Nestmaterialtypen unterteilen: (i) Nester aus toten pflanzlichen Materialien, (ii) Pilznester, (iii) Seidennester und (iv) Wurzelnester (Ameisengärten). Am häufigsten vertreten waren die aus Larvalseide gefertigten Webenester der Gattungen Polyrhachis, Camponotus (Karavaievia) und Oecophylla; insgesamt 45 % aller Funde gehörten zu dieser Materialgruppe. Fremde Seide konnten neben drei Polyrhachis-Arten auch drei Arten aus der Gattung Dolichoderus verarbeiten. Bemerkenswert ist der hohe Anteil pilzbewachsener Nestbauten. In allen drei Unterfamilien fanden sich Arten, die zu unterschiedlichen Teilen Pilze in ihren Nestern hielten. In der Gattung Technomyrmex waren 70 % aller älteren Nester vollständig aus Pilzhyphen gebildet. Mehr als die Hälfte des Nestmaterials von Monomorium-Nestern bestand ebenfalls aus einem dichten Pilzmyzel. Pilze bildeten auch in den Nestern von einigen Arten der Gattungen Dolichoderus, Crematogaster und Camponotus (Myrmotarsus) die maßgebliche Materialkomponente. Folgt man der bisher verwendeten Begriffsdefinition, die arboreale Ameisennester in der Regel nach den hauptsächlich verwendeten Baumaterialien einteilt, so muss man zu den bislang bekannten Karton- und Seidennestern die dritte Gruppe der Pilznester hinzufügen. Die Wahl des jeweiligen Baumaterials wirkt sich direkt auf die angewandten Bearbeitungsmechanismen und die Art und Weise der Nestfixierung und Neststabilisierung aus. Die Vertreter der Myrmicinen-Gattungen Myrmicaria und Monomorium zeigten in der Materialnutzung sowie bei der Stabilisierung und Fixierung der Konstruktionen gattungsspezifische Eigenheiten. Die Festigung der Nestbauten werden über H- Brückenstabilisierung (Myrmicaria) und Trichomstabilisierung (Monomorium) erreicht. Pilzhyphenstabilisierte Nester bauen Vertreter der Gattungen Technomyrmex, Dolichoderus und Crematogaster. Wobei innerhalb der beiden letztgenannten Gattungen noch eine Reihe weiterer Fixierungsmechanismen auftreten können. Bei Dolichoderus und Crematogaster sind die Methoden der Materialverfestigung sehr vielfältig und haben jeweils eine große Radiation erfahren (Stabilisierung durch Fremdseide, Pilze, Wurzeln und Klebstoff). Den Camponotus-Arten war die Eroberung der Baumkronenregion mit Hilfe von wurzelstabilisierten Ameisengärten (C. (Myrmotarsus)) und mit der Verwendung klebriger Larvalseide (C. (Karavaievia)) möglich. Beschränkt auf Seide zur Nestfixierung sind die Arten der Gattungen Oecophylla und Polyrhachis. Das bestimmende Element in der Nestarchitektur von fast allen Ameisennestern ist die Bogenkammer oder der Bogengang. Die innere Architektur von Oecophylla-Nestern weicht praktisch als einzige von dieser weit verbreiteten ,Bogenkammer-Struktur-- ab. Bei allen anderen Ameisenarten sind die Nestkammern in der Höhendimension in etwa auf die Größe einer einzelnen Arbeiterin beschränkt. Wegen der kooperativen Zusammenarbeit vieler Arbeiterinnen bei Oecophylla wird die Korrelation von Kammerhöhe und Körpergröße in dieser Gattung aufgehoben. Morphologische Besonderheiten, die als Anpassung an das Leben in Freinestern gedeutet werden könnten, konnten in der vorliegenden Arbeit bei keiner der untersuchten Arten festgestellt werden. Bei Bienen, Wespen und bei den Termiten wird überwiegend eine modellierende Bearbeitungstechnik angewandt. Die körpereigenen, flüssig-adhäsiven Substanzen (Wachs, Sekret und Kot) werden dazu oft noch mit Wasser verdünnt. Auch viele Ameisenarten verarbeiten wassergetränktes Material, nur einige wenige Vertreter der Gattung Crematogaster versetzen es allerdings mit klebenden Sekreten. Die durch das Baumaterial und dessen Fixierung am Substrat vorgegebene Verschiedenartigkeit der Bearbeitungstechniken hat bei den Ameisen zu sehr komplexen Verhaltensweisen geführt. So zum Beispiel das gezielte Verzahnen von Blatthaaren und das Verbinden von Baustoffen ohne die Zugabe von Leim. Weiter bearbeiten Ameisen Materialien, indem sie sie mit Fäkalien und anderen nährstoffreichen Substanzen düngen und so das Wachstum von Pilzhyphen und Wurzelfasern aktiv lenken. Die Seidenweber zeigen mit dem Verspinnen noch eine zusätzliche Möglichkeit der Materialbearbeitung bei Ameisen. Im Vergleich mit anderen sozialen Insekten findet man innerhalb der Ameisen eine mehr generalisierte Bautechnik, die möglicherweise variabler und effizienter ist als die Spezialisierung auf nur eine Materialkomponente. Generell sind die Freinestbauer, anders als die weitgehend deterministisch eingenischten obligaten Pflanzenameisen, bei der Auswahl des Nistplatzes nicht auf vorgegebene Hohlraumstrukturen (Domatien etc.) ganz bestimmter Pflanzen angewiesen, sondern erhöhen ihre Beweglichkeit in der Nistplatzwahl durch die Auswahl vergleichsweise häufig zu findender Substrattypen und Nestmaterialien. Bei allen untersuchten Freinestbauern konnte keine Spezialisierung auf eine bestimmte Pflanzenart festgestellt werden. Stochastische Besiedlungsprozesse gewinnen damit in dieser Ameisengilde, im Vergleich mit den myrmekophytischen Ameisenarten, an Bedeutung. In der vorliegenden Dissertation konnte erstmalig experimentell gezeigt werden, dass die bislang nur aus der Neotropis bekannten Ameisengärten auch im paläotropischen Faunengebiet zu finden sind. Die erstaunlichen Ähnlichkeiten zwischen neotropischen und paläotropischen Ameisengarten-Assoziationen deuten darauf hin, dass es in den unterschiedlichen tropischen Gebieten zu einer konvergenten und parallelen Entwicklung von ähnlich präadaptierten Ameisen und Pflanzen gekommen ist. Freinestbau ist mehrfach unabhängig voneinander entstanden. Sehr wahrscheinlich stand bei vielen Ameisen die Sicherung von Trophobiosestellen am Anfang der Entwicklung. Denkbar ist ebenso, dass die Vergesellschaftung von Epiphyten und Ameisen bei einigen Gruppen die Basis für die Evolution von Freinestbau war. Die Fertigung ausgedehnter Schutzbauten außerhalb der Nester, wie man sie beispielsweise bei der Myrmicinen-Gattung Pheidole findet, könnte ebenfalls die Evolution von frei gestalteten Nestern initiiert haben. Insgesamt wird deutlich, dass Konkurrenzvermeidung und die Erweiterung des Nistraum- und Nahrungsspektrums die drei bestimmenden Faktoren in der Evolution des Nestbauverhaltens von Ameisen waren. Anders als bei Wespen und Termiten fehlt den Ameisen jegliche Prädisposition für die Produktion von liquiden Klebesubstanzen. Sie haben vielfältige Wege gefunden, Wasser zum Nest zu transportieren und damit ihren Möglichkeiten entsprechende Verarbeitungs- mechanismen anzuwenden. Die fehlende gemeinsame Prädisposition der Ameisen für eine dauerhafte Fixierung von Baumaterialien, wie sie für freie Nestkonstruktionen notwendig ist, hat viele verschiedene Lösungen hervorgebracht und ist einer der Gründe für die hohe Variabilität der Freinestbauten bei Ameisen. Die in der vorliegenden Arbeit gezeigte variable Nistbiologie hat einen wichtigen Einfluss auf die Abundanzstrukturen tropischer arborealer Arthropodengemeinschaften und ist in hohem Maße für den großen Erfolg der Ameisen in diesem Habitat verantwortlich.
In dieser Arbeit sollen zwei Themenkomplexe, jeder für sich außerordentlich interessant und vielschichtig, betrachtet und verknüpft werden. Das direkte Einbinden von lebenden Tieren in die Lehre des Lebendigen ist nicht nur sinnvoll, sondern wichtig und wird auch von den Rahmenplänen Biologie empfohlen. Mit dem Einsatz von Tieren im Unterricht wird sich an verschiedenen Stellen beschäftigt (z.B. OGILVIE & STINSON 1995). Der Klasse Reptilia kommt dabei aber vergleichsweise wenig Beachtung zu. Voraussetzung für die Haltung von Tieren in der Schule, die in der Öffentlichkeit steht und eine beachtliche Vorbildsfunktion inne hat, ist unter anderem, dass eine „artgerechte“ Unterbringung und Pflege möglich ist. Was unter der Bezeichnung einer „artgerechten Tierhaltung“ verstanden wird, ist alles andere als eindeutig. Deshalb soll die Thematik mit Bezug auf die Reptilienhaltung in der Schule beleuchtet werden.
De ossibus fossilibus, in praefectura Herzbergensi repertis, altera dissertatio ... Lecta d. 1. Iul.
(1752)
Mollusken von Ostspitzbergen
(1892)