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Koalas are popular zoo animals, but difficult in husbandry. In addition to their specialised diet of eucalyptus leaves, they are prone to “stress” and disease. Particularly in European zoos, themonitoring of theirwell-being has high priority and they are protected from possible stressors. However, stress signs in koalas are vague and monitoring techniques like weighing might result in discomfort itself. Additionally, husbandry routines are planned according to keeper’s schedule, not to the endogenous rhythms of the koalas. Therefore it is necessary to investigate activity pattern in captive koalas and the signals influencing them. These signals have to be assessed on the strength and quality of their impact. A total of 17 koalas have been observed in three zoological gardens in Australia and Europe. Koalas kept in outdoor enclosures with little human contact (Koala Walkabout, Taronga Zoo, Sydney) showed a uniform activity pattern, which was clearly entrained by light. Activity levels were higher during the night, and there was a pronounced resting period in the morning which corresponds with low body temperature measured by Degabriele and Dawson (1979). Activity peaks were related to twilight and changed during the year related to day lengths. However, there was a clear influence from the introduction of fresh browse which resulted in a distinct feeding peak in the afternoon. With short day lengths, this stimulus competed with dusk. Activity patterns from koalas in indoor enclosures (Zoo Duisburg, Vienna Zoo) varied between individuals and in some cases lacked a detectable rhythm. Though activity peaks were related to light, entrainment to sunlight was weak. In winter, koalas reacted primarily to the artificial light, but some also showed activity peaks related to sunlight. Activity patterns in these koalas were less structured and differed severely from patterns expected according to literature. Activity was often related to the keeper’s presence and food introduction. Frequency of feeding bouts was considerably higher at Vienna Zoo compared to the other zoos and the bouts were shorter in duration. Time budgets of the koalas were within the range given in free-range studies. Feeding showed seasonal changes and was increased in lactating females. Koalas at Vinna Zoo had a high level of locomotor activity compared to the size of the enclosure. Koalas at Koala Walkabout were not used to handling, so they resisted the keeper. The koalas at the two European zoos were handled regularly and settled down quickly. However, handling took place in the morning; in most koalas, there was no activity prior to it. In Vienna, resting periods were interrupted daily due to weighing. Food introduction at KoalaWalkabout took place in the afternoon. It was preceded by locomotor activity and triggered a long feeding bout in the koalas. It is not clear, whether food had true Zeitgeber properties or masked the endogenous rhythm. In the two European zoos, food was introduced in the morning. The peaks related to this were smaller than those at Koala Walkabout. Activity was rarely observed prior to food introduction. The koalas at Koala Encounter, Taronga Zoo (Sydney),were regularly confronted with visitors, though no contact was allowed. Direct observation by the keepers did rarely show any stress signs. Activity patterns at night were strikingly similar to Koala Walkabout, but differed dramatically during the day. Food was introduced three times a day, which usually resulted in activity that interrupted a resting period. Generally, the koalas at Koala Encounter were more active than those at KoalaWalkabout. They also displayed a high level of locomotor activity, especially on the ground, which is an accepted sign of discomfort in koalas (Wood 1978; Zoological Society of San Diego 2001; Yusuf& Rosenthal unpublished data). In summary, this chronoethological study of the captive koalas showed that there are several problems with koala husbandry. Artificial light regimes for koalas are not sufficient for entrainment and result in unstructured activity pattern. This is especially the case in winter, when the day in Europe is artificially extended. Due to the mainly nocturnal behaviour of koalas, such an extension might not be necessary and therefore should be avoided. Handling in Europe took place during the physiological resting time of the koalas. Interruptions of resting times are considered as stressors (Wood 1978) and should be avoided. Handling in the afternoon would be more suitable for the koalas and triggered activity in the two koalas at Vienna Zoo. It is also arguable if daily weighing is necessary to monitor health in captive koalas or if the frequent interruption of resting countervail the advantages of constant monitoring. Frequent contact with visitors, evenwithout the so-called cuddling, has a considerable impact on activity patterns and time budget of koalas, even if no immediate stress signs are displayed. Such contact should therefore be reduced to a minimum and chronoethological observations of the koalas should be used. A study on koalas with direct visitor contact is also advisable to revise the current legislation on “koala cuddling”. Koalas frequently rested in living trees if they had access to it. Since no food-poisoning has been reported from koalas using living non-food trees, the provision of living trees with an appropriate canopy should be included in the husbandry guidelines. Increased locomotor activity has been shown to be related to conditions of discomfort or stress and possibly to oestrus. This is in accordance with literature (Wood 1978; Zoological Society of San Diego 2001). Further observation, combined with hormone analysis, are advisable to establish this parameter for evaluation of well-being. Chronoethology has proven to be useful for the evaluation of husbandry conditions and group dynamics. Different to other, traditional ethologicalmethods, it indicated problems and enabled me to advise more appropriate times for handling and food introduction. It is desirable that zoos already using 24-hour video observation include chronoethological aspects into their analysis.
Le système des Gobiidés
(1930)
Die im nachfolgenden aufgeführten Spinnen wurden im Jahre 1907 gesammelt durch die Expedition, die unter Leitung von Dr. H. A. LORENTNZ Niederländisch Südwest-Neu-Guinea besuchte und namentlich an dem Lorentz-(,Noord"-)Nuss arbeitete. Diese Sammlung erfuhr einen erfreulichen Zuwachs durch Material, das Dr. J. W. R. KOCH als Mitglied der von der Kön. Niederländischen Geographischen Gesellschaft im Jahre 1904/1905 nach Niederländisch Neu-Guinea gesandten Expedition an der Südküste, in Merauke, an der Südwestküste arn Digul-Fluss und an der Etna-Bucht sammelte. Die Fortsetzung der Bearbeitung des vorliegenden Materiales wird in einem zweiten Teil geschehen. Das Material endlich, das durch die zweite Expedition von Dr. H. A. LORENTZ in 1909/10 in demselben Gebiete wie seine erste Expedition von 1907 gesammelt wurde, ging mir erst nach Abschluss vorliegender Arbeit zu und soll späterhin bearbeitet werden.
Spinnen aus Nord-Neu-Guinea
(1911)
Die nachfolgend beschriebenen Spinnen wurden während der Monate Februar bis August 1903 im Norden von Niederländisch-Neu-Guinea gesammelt und zwar in erster Linie durch die Herrn L. F. DE BEAUFORT und H. A. LORENTZ, die beiden Zoologen der Niederländischen Expedition, die unter Leitung von Prof. A. WICHMANN im Jahre 1903 das genannte Gebiet untersuchte.
Die Termiten, von welchen gegenwärtig gegen 200 Arten bekannt geworden sind, bewohnen vorzugsweise die tropischen Esinder und die wärmeren Gegenden der Länder mit gemässigtern Klima. In Europa sind, abgesehen von der aus Nordamerika in die Sohönbrunner Treibhäuser eingeschleppten Art Termes flavipes KOLLAR nur zwei Arten einheimisch: Calotermes marginalis ROSSI (flavicollis FABR.), welche aus Portugal, Spanien, der Provence, Toskana, Neapel, Sardinien, Sizilien, Nordafrika, Syrien, Kleinasien und dem nordwestlichen Kaukasus mitgetheilt wurde und Termes lucifugus ROSSI, welche in Portugal, Spanien, der Provenoe, La Rochelle, Paris, Langres, Toskana, Sizilien, Nordafrika, Dalmatien, der Türkei, Griechenland, Cgpern, Beesarabien und Odessa gefunden worden ist. ...
Beschreibung der Larve und Puppe von Liponeura Brevirostris Löw (Dipterenfamilie Blepharoceridae)
(1881)
Über Ceratiten
(1848)
Die Arbeit stellt einen Beitrag zur Fauna von Rovigno dar. Sie enthält eine kritische Übersicht der in der Adria gefundenen Holothurienarten und einen Bestimmungsschlüssel, der sich hauptsachlich auf äußere Merkmale stützt. Der Bestimmungsschlüssel, die Beschreibung der Arten, sowie die Fundkarten und Abbildungen sollen das Auffinden und genaue Bestimmen der Holothurien ermöglichen. Daran schließen sich einige Bemerkungen über ihr Vorkommen in Abhängigkeit von der Meerestiefe und Bodenbeschaffenheit an. An verschiedenen Stellen sind biologische Notizen eingefügt, die sich auf die Lebensweise und Fortpflanzung (jedoch nicht auf Larvenformen, über die verhältnismäßig wenig bekannt ist) beziehen. Die Angaben über die Fortpflanzungszeit besitzen großes praktisches Interesse, weil neuerdings auch in der Adria einige Holothurienarten (H. tubulosa und polii) zur Herstellung von "Trepang" gefischt werden sollen. Da im Gegensatz zu anderen Meeren die Adria bei großem Artenreichtum sehr individuenarm ist, dürfte durch ungehemmtes Ausfischen in kurzer Zeit die Individuenzahl so stark herabgesetzt sein, daß sich ein Fischen gar nicht mehr lohnt. Es scheint daher notwendig, während der Hauptfortpflanzungszeiten dieser Arten streng durchzuführende Schonzeiten festzulegen. Die Arbeit stützt sich vor allem auf eigene Beobachtungen und Untersuchungen. Die meisten Tiere wurden längere Zeit hindurch in Aquarien gehalten und lebend beobachtet. Die voneinander stark abweichenden Beschreibungen der älteren Untersucher verlangten aber auch ein eingehendes Studium der Holothurien-Literatur der Adria. Die verwendete Literatur ist in dem Literaturverzeichnis aufgeführt.
In the ignorance which still prevails regarding many details of the breeding-habits of the Cuckoo, we have a goof object lesson of how well Nature is able to guard her secrets, since, after years of careful and methodical investigation by distinguished naturalists, comparatively few authentic facts have been established. ...
The North Arnerican species of the genus Cremastocheilus are reviewed. These belong to 5 subgenera, Macropodina, Trinodea, Anatinodia, Mymcotonus, and Cremastocheilus. Taxonomie changes are: She inclusion of Crernastocheilus nitens and C. chapini in the subgenus Cremastocheilus rather than Myrmecotonus. Also Anatinodia is elevated to subgeneric status. A key to the subgenera is provided, as is a key to the species of the 5 subgenera, recognizing that the 35 species in the subgenus Cremastocheilus are in need of revision. A critical review of the host records, geographic distribution, and ecology of the Tribe Crernastocheilini (Family Scarabaeidae. subfamily Cetoniinae) is provided. This contains enormous numbers of new records for both the genera Genuchinus and CremastocheiLus both from the literature and from the extensive field work that is reported here for the first time. A Summary of the host records is presented in tabular form. This table shows the association of all species of Cremastocheilus with ants as adults and the larvae either associated with the vegetable material of the ant nests or with vegetable material in rodent burrows. Genuchinus is shown to be a general predator on soft bodied insects while the other genera of the Cremastocheilini are associated with plants, particularly bromeliads. A detailed study of the external morphology and sexual dimorphism of the genera Genuchinus and Crernastocheilus is presented. All species of Cremastocheilus can be sexed with the naked eye by the difference in the shapes of the abdominal terminal Segments, wherein males have the posterior border of the last ventral abdominal segment either straight or slightly bowed, while females have this border broadly rounded. There are other microscopic sexual differences in the structure of the legs. The rest of the external morphology is also presented, particularly from the point of view of adaptations to either a predaceous or rnyrmecophilous existente. Particularly adapted for predation are the pointed maxillae which are used for piercing prey. Particularly adapted for myrmecophily are the mentum, the maxillae, the generally thick exoskeleton, trichomes on both the anterior and posterior angles of the pronotum, the elytra, and the legs (which are adapted to the nest substrate of the host ant nests. Exocrine glands are described for Genuchinus ineptus and at least 1 species of each of the 5 subgenera of Cremastocheilus. In general, there are no gland cells nor glandular areas in Genuchinuc that are comparable to those of Cremastocheilus. The gland cells and glandular areas are quite extensive andvariable arnong species of Cremastocheilus. The frontal gland of some Cremastocheilus (strongly developed in C. castaneus and the C. canaliculatus species group, but weakly developed in the C. wheeleri species group) is described for the first time. Because these glands are not found in Genuchinus ineptuc, a species with general predatory habits, it is thought that these play a role, as yet unknown, in interactions with ants. The life cycles of the subgenera of Cremastocheilus are described. The general life cycle entails adult beetles eclosing in ant nests during the summer and then undertaking dispersal flights. The adults then enter ant nests and ovenivinter there, eating ant larvae during the Winter. Another dispersal flight occurs in the spring during which the adults mate and enter ant nests again. The females then lay eggs and the adults die. The eggs hatch and the larvae spend 3 instars feeding upon vegetable material in the nests. The lmae then pupate in typical scarabaeine earthen cells made of fecal material and soil. These eclose in the summer and the cycle is repeated. Variation from species to species is largely in the timing. Leaving the nest in late Summer, mating seems to be triggered by rainfall in all the species studied. Mating of C. (Macropodina) beameri takes place in rodent burrows. Males seem attracted to females from a distance but the mechanism of this remains obscure. In the subgenus Trinodia, mating takes place on sandy washes or roadsides where females land. In the subgenus Myrmecotonus, maüng also takes place in sandy areas. In C. (Cremastocheilus) mating takes place on sand bars along rivers in the southeastern U.S. and in sand dunes in northeastern U.S. The femaies dig down into the sand. Males locate these places by some unknown mechanism and then dig down to copulate with the females. Field experiments showed unequivocaily that males dig only into areas occupied by females. No sex-specific Sex attractant glands have been located in females so far. Dispersal to ant nests occurs after mating except for C. (Macropodina) beameri which lays its eggs in the rodent burrows and then probably disperses to ant nests. Beetle activity going in and out of nests was studied using wire hardware cloth screens over entrances to Mynnecocystus nests. The mesh size was such that the ants could move freely in or out but the beetles got stuck by their thoraces. The direction then could be interpreted by the direction in which they got stuck. By this method, C. stathamae was shown to leave nests from 23 June to 1 September with a peak on 6 July, just after the beginning of the summer rains. Beetles entered nests from June 23 to August 3, however 39% entered on July 16, probably pulsed by the leaving time which was correlated with the rains. Life cycle timing: C. (Macropodina) develop in the nests of Wood rats (Neotoma sp.]. Females lay about 40 eggs each. The 3 larval instars to pupation take about 1 month. Pupae are found from late August to weil into September. In other subgenera as well, larvae are found in parts of the nest devoid of ants, The timing is similar in all the subgenera found with ants. Mortality factors: While ants attack Cremastocheilus adults, there is no evidence that they are ever killed by ants nor is there evidence that ants kill larvae nor hard earthen pupae cases which protect the pupae. During dispersal fiights and mating, the adults are exposed to predation and evidence is presented that shows predation by horned toads, spiders, magpies, and tiger beetles. Probably most mortality occurs in the larval and pupd stages where the beetles are attacked by internal parasites and fungus. Further rnortality is caused by limitation of the food supply during the larval stage. Reentering nests: Females of C. (Macropodina) beameri select specific rodent and other burrows, attract males for rnating. and then enter the burrow for oviposition. C. stathamae are carried into the ants nests from as far away as 25ft. The beetles appear to land spontaneously after flying randomly over M. depilis nesting areas. Then the wander about waiting for the ants to carry them into the nests. Cremastocheilus hirsutus fly low over the ground searching for Pogonomyrrnex barbatus nests, land. and move straight for the nest entrances which they enter unhindered. Among all species, the ants frequently eject beetles but the net rnovement is in. Ants frequently attacked Cremastocheilus in laboratory observation nests when they were introduced. These attacks seldom resulted in the death of the beetles and the beetles were eventually ignored. When the beetles entered brood chambers, where they fed upon larvae, they were mostly ignored and even licked assiduously by the ants. A principle defensive behavior by the beetles is feigning death (letisimulation). The beetles give off an unpleasant "dead fish odor when collected in the I field. Experiments show that this substance functions to fend off some predators but further experiments indicated that these substances were ineffective against both ants and kangaroo rats. Experiments with various species of Cremastocheilus adults indicate that the adults eat only ant larvae. The beetles will eat larvae of non-host ants but show preferences for the larvae of their normal hosts. Under the same experimental conditions. Genuchinus ineptus adults will feed on a variety of insect adults and larvae. Field experiments on the function of trichome secretions did not indicate that they function to attract ants at a distance nor are they involved in worker acceptance. Laboratory experiments in which areas with a high concentration of gland cells were presented to ants showed that no ants were attracted. Laboratory introduction of Cremastocheilus hamisii adults into Fomica schau.si nests yielded many interactions including ants licking the anterior pronotal angles, the mentum area where the frontal glands empty and a carina over the eye with a dense pad of short setae. These are areas of concentration of gland cells and these are the first observations of licking by ants in specific sites containing exocrine glands. Radioisotope experiments showed food exchange among ants but never from ants to beetles. Other experiments showed that ants can pick up radioactivity from the beetles without feeding on trichome secretions. Evolutionary pathways: Adult Cremastocheilini probably followed the evolutionary route from adult predation on soft bodied insects to specialized feeding upon ant brood and the subsequent development of the beetle larvae in vegetable material in the ant colonies. Thus Genuchininseptus makes a logical outgroup in that they are general predators probably feeding mostly on Diptera larvae associated with Sotol plants in the field. The rnajor evolutionary step taken by Cremastocheiluswas to specialize on ant brood. Then the species radiated into ant colonies inhabiting southwestem North Arnenca. Most of the ant hosts invaded have quantities of vegetable material in their nests sufficient to support several developing scarab larvae. Host colonies are large, contain accessible brood, and are usually dominant foragers Evidence supports the idea that the species of Cremastocheilus have differentes in behavior and morphology that reflect adaptation to the behavioral ecology of different species of ants rather than different evolutionary levels of integration into ant colonies.
Rhizostomen von Ambon
(1898)
Die im Folgenden behandelten Rhizostomen wurden bei der Insel Ambon (Molukken) im Januar und Februar 1893 von Herrn Prof. R. SEMON gesammelt. Die Sammlung enthält 34 wohl erhaltene Individuen, die sich mit je einer Art auf 8 Genera vertheilen. Davon waren 2, den Polyrhiziden angehörige Gattungen noch nicht bekannt, Cassiopeja und Toxoclytus, letztere bisher nur im Atlantischen und - wenn wir die fragliche Cephea Dubreuillii von Reynaud auch zu Toxoclytus ziehen wollen - irn Indischen Ozean gefunden, sind in je einer neuen Art vertreten. Die umfangreiche, mehrere Originale (zum Theil aus den Museum GODEFPROY) enthaltende Rhizostomensammlung des Zoologischen Instituts in Jena und des Museums für Naturkunde zu Berlin, für deren Benutzung ich Herrn Geh. Rath MÖBIUS und Herrn Dr. W. WELTNER zu grosseln Dank verpflichtet bin, lieferten mir werthvoIles Vergleichsmaterial. Bei der anatomischen und systematischen Vergleichung ging ich in erster Linie auf die grundlegende Monographie der Medusen von HAECKEL zurück, die dessen System und untereinander sich befehdenden Vorschläge von CLAUS und VANHÖFFEN zur Kontrolle jeder einzelnen Bestimmung heranziehend.
Neue Käfer vom Amur
(1879)
Neue Acariden
(1879)
Es sind vorzüglich die Engländer, die über die therapeutische Anwendung des Ammonium bromntum gearbeitet haben und dasselbe als nützlich in versohiedenen Nervenleiden preisen. (Gibb, Ritchie, Harley , Belgrave). Wir benutzten dasselbe auch vielfach in der Kinderklinik in Petersburg und besonders beim Keuchhusten, aber wenn wir auch einigermaassen die Krankheits-Anfälle abnehmen sahen, so trat diese Abnahme doch lange nicht in dem Grade ein, wie sie Gibb beobachtet haben will, und wonach er das Präparat als Radicalmittel gegen den Keuchhusten empfehlen zu können glaubt. Die Meinungen über die Art der Wirkung dieses Mittels sind getheilt. Belgrave will demselben die Wirkung des Kalium bromatum zuschreiben, nur in etwas geringerem Grade; Gibb vindicirt für dasselbe eine besondere Einwirkung auf die Empfindungsnerven des Schlundes; Binz, der es in einer Keuchhusten-Epidemie viel benutzte, behauptet, dass dasselbe gar keine Vorzüge vor dem Salmiak haben soll. Wir sahen uns daher veranlasst, um die Wirkung dieses Mittels genauer zu ermitteln, eine Reihe von Untersuchungen an verschiedenen Thieren anzustellen, und wir wollen hier kurz die Resultate dieser Untersuchungen mittheilen.