891 Ostindoeuropäische, keltische Literaturen
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Aleksandar Hemons Romane und Erzählungen, die den Gegenstand der folgenden Ausführungen bilden, sind in dieser transnationalen neuen Weltliteratur zu verorten und zugleich Bestandteil einer postjugoslawischen Literatur, für die "Jugoslawien" als Bezugsrahmen nach wie vor eine Rolle spielt. Um diese mehrfache Verortung von Hemons Werk zu fassen zu bekommen, wird im Folgenden die Gestaltung von Zugehörigkeit in Hemons Texten in den Blick genommen. Zugehörigkeit wird dabei als Form der Identitätsbildung aufgefasst, die nicht notwendigerweise auf Eindeutigkeit und Ausschließlichkeit abzielt, sondern für Wandel und Mulitiplizität offen ist. So verstanden dient der Begriff der Zugehörigkeit dazu, Selbstverortung in transnationalen Zusammenhängen zu beschreiben: "'Belonging', which used to belong to retrograde, nationalist and racist agendas, now indicates identity as it widens in response to globalization."
Der serbisch-kanadische Schriftsteller David Albahari, um dessen Roman Pijavice (Die Ohrfeige) es in der Folge gehen wird, widmete dem Thema unter anderem den Essay "Antisemitismus: Serbien und Kanada". In diesem mit zeitlichem Abstand geschriebenen Essay hebt Albahari für die 1990er Jahre gleichfalls Friedhofschändungen, antisemitische Schmierereien und antisemitische Verschwörungstheorien hervor, die Juden und Freimaurer für die Bombardierung Serbiens 1999 verantwortlich machten. Diese Beunruhigung, von der ihm seine jüdischen Bekannten schrieben, hätte, so Albahari, viel damit zu tun, dass jene, wie auch er, in Jugoslawien aufgewachsen seien - einem Land, in dem antisemitische Vorfälle selten gewesen waren, weil der die Freiheiten der Bürger einschränkende jugoslawische Staat dennoch irgendwie eine Grenze zwischen dem staatlich vertretenen Antizionismus und dem religiösen und nationalem Hass gezogen habe. In den 1990er Jahren habe sich dies in gewisser Weise umgekehrt: Während diplomatische Beziehungen zu Israel aufgenommen wurden, habe der Antisemitismus im Klima des nationalen Hasses als eine von dessen Erscheinungen Fuß fassen können und erweise sich nun gar als nachhaltiger als andere. Albahari, der in seinem Essay diese Wende in den 1990er Jahren fokussiert, scheut sich nicht, die Situation in Serbien mit der in anderen Nachfolgestaaten Jugoslawiens zu vergleichen.
Am Beispiel der Aufführung des Stückes "Rose is a rose is a rose is a rose" am ZKM (Zagrebačko kazalište mladih) in Zagreb 2010 und mit Seitenblicken auf den Theatertext "Prizori s jabukom" (Szenen mit Apfel, 2009), wird hier der Postdramatik Ivana Sajkos nachgegangen. Sajko verwendet den vor allem durch den Frankfurter Theaterwissenschaftler Hans-Thies Lehmann etablierten Begriff des "Postdramatischen Theaters" in der Selbstbeschreibung ihrer Theaterarbeit, ohne diesen dogmatisch im Sinne einer vollständigen Überwindung des Dramatischen zu verstehen. Isotonie und Stimme (Lautlichkeit) näher erfasst und zugleich vor dem Hintergrund der nach-jugoslawischen Gesellschaften gelesen werden. Die Wirksamkeit von Sajkos Theater auf der theatron-Achse - jener Achse, die zwischen Bühne und Zuschauerraum verläuft - soll ausgewiesen und am Beispiel der genannten Stücke die Frage nach dem Politischen des Postdramatischen Theaters diskutiert werden. Im nach jugoslawischen Raum scheint gerade das Politische des zeitgenössischen Theaters, das sich in konkreten Aufführungssituationen in physischer Anwesenheit eines Publikums 'materialisiert', besondere Bedeutung für die Nachkriegsgesellschaften und deren Vergangenheitsbewältigung zu erlangen.
One of the most striking and unsettling elements in Venedikt Erofeev's novel "Moskva-Petuški" is the ending where Venja, the protagonist-narrator, is murdered by four mysterious executioners in the stairway of a downtown Moscow building. [...] The last sentence turns the entire preceding narrative into a paradox: the narrator indicates that he could not have told his story, since he ceased to exist as a consciousness ("soznanie") as soon as the action stopped. The fact of Venja's death itself does not necessarily cancel out his ability to tell about the events leading up to his demise: literature knows a number of beyond-the-grave narrators, e.g., the murdered Olivia in Anne Hebert's "Les fous de Bassan" or the dead samurai Tekehiko in Akutagawa Riunosuke's "In a grove". What makes Venja's narrative paradoxic is his own reference to the end of his cogitative activity. at the moment of death the hero ceases to think and should, logically, lose the ability to narrate. Normally, a dead narrator acquires his/her ability to narrate by supernatural means, e.g., via life after death, as in "Les Fous de Bassan" or through a medium, as in "In a Grove". Such postmortem loquacity may also remain unexplained. In "Moskva-Petuški", however, the dead narrator seems to stress that his death appears as the ultimate end: a point where everything, including time and consciousness, stops.
Ten years after writing "Spotted dog running along the seashore" ("Пегий пес, бегущий краем моря") Chingiz Aitmatov said that this novella was his favorite. Perhaps this is because it represents the essence of Aitmatov's artistic world view. The term "essence" is appropriate here because the setting and the characters of the novella are totally removed from the modem world and from history itself. Unburdened by the need to relate his artistic goals and philosophical interests to any specific socio-political context - a requirement made all the more problematic for an author writing within the Soviet literary system - Aitmatov was free to develop his favorite themes in a kind of "tabula rasa" medium. Thus, it was with absolute directness that the author could face questions dominating much of his fiction: the moral soundness of age-old values, the need for continuity in social development, the necessity of humanity's hannonious coexistence with nature, and the positive ethical value of myth.
In his lifetime Daniil Charms only succeeded in publishing two of his poems for adults. Publicly he was a children's author: a job in the Soviet Union which traditionally attracted many writers whose literature for adults was either rejected by the official literary system or had to be hidden altogether if its creators wanted to avoid trouble.
In fact up to the present day it is still Charms the children's author who is best known and loved, although finally under new historical and political conditions the writer for adults has also been allowed to make his debut. However, whatever he wrote, Charms' work was always dominated by an absurdist world view, a view that usually denied all dogma or ideology. His only aim seems to have been to present a world upside down and play around with literary and other conventions, i.e. more than anything else he wanted to be different, acting as a sort of literary "punk".
Although Charms and his associates were preceded by European absurdist authors, such as A. Jarry (1873-1907), it is very difficult to establish any relationship of influence between examples of Western European absurdism and Daniil Charms. Nonetheless, Charms' work, as well as that of Jarry, Ionesco and Beckett, all share the "grotesquely comic as well as irrational" (Abrams 1981: 1) quality of the absurdist movement in its larger modernist context.
Vsevolod M. Garshin's story "Four Days" ("Четыре дня") made the author famous when it was published in 1877. Intended as a strong anti·war statement and based on a true incident during the Russian-Turkish war (1877-78), "Four Days" is the interior monologue of a wounded soldier left for dead on an empty battlefield. His last name, Ivanov, which is traditionally considered to be the most common one in Russia, may suggest the idea of "everyman" in order to generalize the protagonists terrible experience on the battlefield into a broad anti-war message. The protagonist finds himself pinned down next to 0the body of a Turkish soldier whom he had killed just before being wounded. Forced to look at the corpse for a long time, Ivanov experiences terrible guilt, since he has never killed before. After four days of physical and mental agony, during which Ivanov reassesses his formerly idealistic attitude toward war and ends up condemning it as something far from glorious and noble, the protagonist is found by his regiment, and, unlike his real-life prototype, he survives (Henry. 47). Throughout the text we do not lave the confines of the protagonist's mind; as a result, the intense, relentless focus on his mental and physical anguish created by the interior monologue: immobilized by his wound, he becomes a prisoner of his own mind; as a result, the intense, relentless focus on his mental and physical anguish created by the interior monologue technique enhances the "horrors of war" effect intended by the author. At the same time the war-related situation and setting provide motivation for the wounded man's interior monologue: immobilized by his wound, he becomes a prisoner of his own mind and its therefore forced by circumtances to think through his entire predicament and its causes.
In 1937, when Bulgakov was working on Master i Margarita and suffering from rejection by the theatre community, an old friend appealed to him: "Вы ведь государство в государстве. Сколько это может продолжаться? Надо сдаваться, все сдались. Один вы остались. Это глупо." And indeed "государство в государстве" ("a state within a state") is an appropriate way of describing a man who was feverishly working on a modernist novel at the height of socialist realism. The very fact that Master i Margarita was written in the oppressive environment of the 1930s makes it a unique modernist work, for it emerges as a protest against socialist realism and a defense of artistic freedom. In this respect the modernist qualities of Bulgakov's novel acquire a new dimension because Master i Margarita becomes a kind of artistic devil, fulfilling the traditional diabolic role of opposing authority. This is why Woland, as a character, is the metonymic expression of the novel's revolt.