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TIM23-mediated insertion of transmembrane alpha-helices into the mitochondrial inner membrane
(2011)
While overall hydrophobicity is generally recognized as the main characteristic of transmembrane (TM) alpha-helices, the only membrane system for which there are detailed quantitative data on how different amino acids contribute to the overall efficiency of membrane insertion is the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of eukaryotic cells. Here, we provide comparable data for TIM23-mediated membrane protein insertion into the inner mitochondrial membrane of yeast cells. We find that hydrophobicity and the location of polar and aromatic residues are strong determinants of membrane insertion. These results parallel what has been found previously for the ER. However, we see striking differences between the effects elicited by charged residues flanking the TM segments when comparing the mitochondrial inner membrane and the ER, pointing to an unanticipated difference between the two insertion systems. Keywords: CoxVa , membrane protein , Mgm1p , mitochondria , TIM23
Three-dimensional structure of the glycine-betaine transporter BetP by cryo electron crystallography
(2008)
The soil bacterium Corynebacterium glutamicum has five secondary transporters for compatible solutes allowing it to cope with osmotic stress. The most abundant of them, the transporter BetP, performs a high affinity uptake of glycine-betain when encountering hyperosmotic stress. BetP belongs to the betaine/carnitine/choline/transporter (BCCT) family, and is predicted to have twelve transmembrane helices with both termini facing the cytoplasm. The goal of this thesis is to facilitate understanding of BetP function by determining a three dimensional (3D) model of its structure. Two-dimensional (2D) crystallization of wild-type (WT) BetP has been successfully performed by reconstitution into a mixture of E. coli lipids and bovine cardiolipin, which resulted in vesicular crystals diffracting to 7.5 Å resolution (Ziegler, Morbach et al. 2004). Diffraction patterns of these crystals however showed unfocused spots, generally due to high mosaicity. Better results were obtained by using the constitutively active mutant BetPdeltaC45 in which the first 45 amino acids of the positively charged C-terminus were removed. BetPdeltaC45 crystals obtained under the same conditions for BetP WT were concluded to be pseudo crystals, based on the inconsistence of symmetry. These crystals had BetPdeltaC45 molecules randomly up/downwards inserted into membrane crystals, and cannot be used for structure determination, even though they diffracted up to 7 Å. The problem of pseudo crystal formation could be solved by changing the lipids used for 2D crystallization to a native lipid extract from C. glutamicum cells. This change of lipids improved the crystals to well-ordered packing with exclusive p121_b symmetry. To understand the role of lipids in crystal packing and order, lipids were extracted at different stages during crystallization, and identified by using multiple precursor ion scanning mass spectrometry. The results show that phosphatidyl glycerol (PG) 16:0-18:1 is the most dominant lipid species in C. glutamicum membranes, and that BetP has a preference for the fatty acid moieties 16:0-18:1. Crystallization with synthetic PG 16:0-18:1 proved that an excess of this lipid prevents pseudo crystal formation, but these crystals did not reach the quality as previously achieved by using the C. glutamicum lipids. Apart from the effect of lipids in crystallinity, the concentration and type of salts influenced crystal growth and morphology. High salt conditions (>400 mM LiCl or KCl) yielded tubular crystals, whereas low salt conditions (<300 mM LiCl, NaCl or KCl) led to formation of up to 10 µm large sheet-like crystals. The intermediate concentration gave a mixture of sheet-like and tubular crystals. In terms of resolution, sheets diffracted better than tubes. The sheet-like crystals used for 3D map reconstruction were obtained from a dialysis buffer containing 200 mM NaCl combined with using C. glutamicum lipids. Electron microscopic images were taken from frozen-hydrated crystals using a helium-cooled JEOL 300 SFF microscope or a liquid nitrogen-cooled FEI Tecnai G2 microscope at 300 kV, which allowed optimal data collection and minimized radiation damage to the sample. More than 1000 images of tilt angles up to 50° were taken and evaluated using optical diffraction of a laser beam. The best 200 images were processed with the MRC image processing software package, and 79 images from different tilt angles were merged to the final data set used for calculation of a 3D map at a planar resolution of 8 Å. The structure shows BetPdeltaC45 as a trimer with each monomer consisting of 12 transmembrane alpha-helices. Protein termini and loop regions could not be determined due to the limited resolution of the map. Six of the twelve helices line a central cavity forming a potential substrate-binding chamber. Each monomer shows a central cavity in different sizes and shapes. Thus, the constitutively active BetPdeltaC45 thus forms an unusual asymmetric homotrimer. BetP most likely reflects three different conformational states of secondary transporters: the cytoplasmically open (C), the occluded (O), and the periplasmically open (P) states. The C and O states are similar to BetP WT projection structure, while the P state is discrepant and highly flexible due to the shape and size of the central cavity as well as the lowest intensity of the density. The observation of the P state corresponds well to the constitutively active property of BetPdeltaC45. For the high resolution structure of the C and O states are available, this work presents the first structural information of the P state of a secondary transporter.
The cytochrome bc1 complex is a cornerstone in bioenergetic electron transfer chains, where it carries out tasks as diverse as respiration, photosynthesis, and nitrogen fixation. This homodimeric multisubunit membrane protein has been studied extensively for several decades and the enzyme mechanism is described with the modified protonmotive Q cycle. Still, the molecular and kinetic description of the catalytic cycle is not complete and questions remain regarding the bifurcation of electron transfer at the quinol oxidation (Qo) site, substrate occupancy, pathways of proton conduction, and the nature of the Rieske protein domain movement. We used competitive inhibitors to study the molecular architecture at the Qo site with X-ray crystallography. The structure of the enzyme with the substrate analog 5-n-heptyl-6-hydroxy-4,7-dioxobenzothiazole (HHDBT) bound at the Qo site was determined at 2.5 Å resolution. Spectroscopic studies showed that HHDBT is negatively charged when bound at the active site. Mechanistic interpretations from inhibitor binding are in line with single occupancy model for quinol oxidation and structural analysis supports the proposed proton transfer pathway. For functional insight into the enzyme mechanism, redox-sensitive protonation changes were studied by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The protein purification procedure was optimized for less delipidation and the isolated enzyme was more active. Furthermore, two new phospholipids were identified in the X-ray structures, including a cardiolipin. Strikingly, conserved lipid binding cavities were observed in structural comparison with homologous enzymes. The functional role of tightly bound phospholipids will be discussed. Finally, the Qo site is a target for various compounds of agricultural and pharmaceutical importance. Importantly, the X-ray structures permit detailed analysis of the molecular reasons for acquired resistance to and treatment failure of Qo site inhibitors, such as atovaquone, that is used to treat malaria and pneumonia, as discussed herein.
Folding of G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) according to the two-stage model (Popot, J. L., and Engelman, D. M. (1990) Biochemistry 29, 4031–4037) is postulated to proceed in 2 steps: partitioning of the polypeptide into the membrane followed by diffusion until native contacts are formed. Herein we investigate conformational preferences of fragments of the yeast Ste2p receptor using NMR. Constructs comprising the first, the first two, and the first three transmembrane (TM) segments, as well as a construct comprising TM1–TM2 covalently linked to TM7 were examined. We observed that the isolated TM1 does not form a stable helix nor does it integrate well into the micelle. TM1 is significantly stabilized upon interaction with TM2, forming a helical hairpin reported previously (Neumoin, A., Cohen, L. S., Arshava, B., Tantry, S., Becker, J. M., Zerbe, O., and Naider, F. (2009) Biophys. J. 96, 3187–3196), and in this case the protein integrates into the hydrophobic interior of the micelle. TM123 displays a strong tendency to oligomerize, but hydrogen exchange data reveal that the center of TM3 is solvent exposed. In all GPCRs so-far structurally characterized TM7 forms many contacts with TM1 and TM2. In our study TM127 integrates well into the hydrophobic environment, but TM7 does not stably pack against the remaining helices. Topology mapping in microsomal membranes also indicates that TM1 does not integrate in a membrane-spanning fashion, but that TM12, TM123, and TM127 adopt predominantly native-like topologies. The data from our study would be consistent with the retention of individual helices of incompletely synthesized GPCRs in the vicinity of the translocon until the complete receptor is released into the membrane interior.
Mechanism of Na+-dependent citrate transport from the structure of an asymmetrical CitS dimer
(2015)
The common human pathogen Salmonella enterica takes up citrate as a nutrient via the sodium symporter SeCitS. Uniquely, our 2.5 Å x-ray structure of the SeCitS dimer shows three different conformations of the active protomer. One protomer is in the outside-facing state. Two are in different inside-facing states. All three states resolve the substrates in their respective binding environments. Together with comprehensive functional studies on reconstituted proteoliposomes, the structures explain the transport mechanism in detail. Our results indicate a six-step process, with a rigid-body 31° rotation of a helix bundle that translocates the bound substrates by 16 Å across the membrane. Similar transport mechanisms may apply to a wide variety of related and unrelated secondary transporters, including important drug targets.
In situ investigation of membrane proteins is a challenging task. Previously we demonstrated that nitroxide labels combined with pulsed ESR spectroscopy is a promising tool for this purpose. However, the nitroxide labels suffer from poor stability, high background labeling, and low sensitivity. Here we show that Finland (FTAM) and OX063 based labels enable labeling of the cobalamin transporter BtuB and BamA, the central component of the β-barrel assembly machinery (BAM) complex, in E coli. Compared to the methanethiosulfonate spin label (MTSL), trityl labels eliminated the background signals and enabled specific in situ labeling of the proteins with high efficiency. The OX063 labels show a long phase memory time (TM) of ≈5 μs. All the trityls enabled distance measurements between BtuB and an orthogonally labeled substrate with high selectivity and sensitivity down to a few μm concentration. Our data corroborate the BtuB and BamA conformations in the cellular environment of E. coli.
P2X-Rezeptoren sind ligandengesteuerte Kationenkanäle, die durch extrazelluläres ATP aktiviert werden. Bisher wurden sieben Isoformen kloniert (P2X1-P2X7), die eine gemeinsame Topologie besitzen, bestehend aus intrazellulären N- und C-Termini, zwei Transmembranregionen und einer großen Ektodomäne. Um funktionelle Ionenkanäle ausbilden zu können, müssen P2X-Untereinheiten in Homo- oder Heterotrimere assemblieren. Das übergeordnete Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war das Identifizieren von Proteindomänen, die zu der Trimerisierung von P2X-Untereinheiten beitragen. Hierzu diente in erster Linie die humane P2X5- (hP2X5-) Untereinheit, der durch Herausspleißen von Exon 10 eine Region fehlt, die in der Literatur als eventuell wichtig für die Assemblierung beschrieben wird. Exon 10 kodiert 22 Aminosäuren, die in der distalen Ektodomäne und der äußeren Hälfte der zweiten Transmembranregion liegen. Das Fehlen dieser Aminosäuren führt zu Untereinheiten, die nicht in der Lage sind, zu trimerisieren und funktionelle Ionenkanäle auszubilden. Durch das schrittweise Einsetzen der von Exon 10 kodierten Aminosäuren in die hP2X5-Untereinheit sowie die Expression verschiedener Alanin-Mutanten mit nachfolgender Analyse durch Blaue-Native-PAGE konnte gezeigt werden, dass das fehlerhafte Assemblierungsverhalten der hP2X5-Untereinheit in erster Linie durch das Fehlen der äußeren Hälfte der zweiten Transmembranregion bewirkt wird. Zusätzliche gezielte Mutationen und die Konstruktion von Deletionsmutanten ergaben weiterhin, dass die zweite Transmembranregion vornehmlich als hydrophober Membrananker dient, um die korrekte Topologie und Positionierung von Assemblierungsdomänen zu gewährleisten. Die wichtigsten Assemblierungs-informationen scheinen in der Ektodomäne zu liegen. Die einzige Aminosäure in der zweiten Transmembranregion, die einen spezifischen Einfluss auf die Trimerisierung von hP2X5-Untereinheiten hatte, war 355D. Einzelmutationen in dieser Position zeigten, dass nur Aminosäuren, deren Seitenketten in der Membran interhelikale Wasserstoffbrücken ausbilden können, eine effiziente Trimerisierung ermöglichen. Dieses Ergebnis legte den Schluss nahe, dass 355D die Assemblierung unterstützt, indem es die Interaktion zwischen den Untereinheiten über eine Wasserstoffbrückenbildung stabilisiert. Die Suche nach einem potentiellen Interaktionspartner von 355D in der ersten Transmembranregion durch Einzelmutationen und Cystein-Crosslinking war allerdings nicht erfolgreich. Dies könnte bedeuten, dass die beiden Transmembranregionen jeweils benachbarter Untereinheiten nicht, wie für P2X2-Untereinheiten gezeigt, in einer „head to tail“-Orientierung angeordnet sind, sondern nur die zweiten Transmembranregionen miteinander in Kontakt stehen. Limitierte Proteolyse von hP2X5-Rezeptormutanten ergab einen engen Zusammenhang zwischen der Trimerisierung und der Resistenz gegenüber einer Proteolyse durch Trypsin. Daraus folgt, dass trimerisierungsfähige P2X-Mutanten korrekt gefaltet sind, während ein Verlust der Trimerisierungsfähigkeit eine Fehlfaltung anzeigt. Neben dem hP2X5-Rezeptor wurden auch Ratten-P2X1- (rP2X1-) Rezeptoren untersucht. rP2X1-Konstrukte, die lediglich aus der Ektodomäne sowie einem abspaltbaren Signalpeptid bestanden, konnten zwar partiell multimerisieren, aber keine definierten Trimere bilden. Die Analyse weiterer Konstrukte zeigte, dass beide Transmembranregionen für die Trimerisierung wichtig sind, auch wenn sie keine spezifischen Assemblierungsinformationen enthalten. Ein systematisches Alanin-Scanning der gesamten Ektodomäne der rP2X1-Untereinheit ergab, dass die Ektodomäne multiple Sequenzmotive enthält, die zu der Trimerisierung beitragen. Die genaue Rolle der identifizierten Sequenzmotive muss in weiteren Experimenten geklärt werden. Zusätzlich wurden Chimären aus rP2X1- und Ratten-P2X6- (rP2X6-) Untereinheiten untersucht. Da rP2X6-Untereinheiten nicht in der Lage sind zu trimerisieren, könnten sie in Kombination mit Sequenzelementen aus rP2X1-Untereinheiten ermöglichen, trimerisierungsrelevante Proteindomänen zu identifizieren. Es zeigte sich, dass eine Chimäre, die die Ektodomäne der rP2X1-Untereinheit und die Transmembranregionen und zytosolischen Domänen der rP2X6-Untereinheit enthielt, trimerisieren konnte, während die umgekehrte Chimäre dies nicht vermochte. Dies war ein weiterer Hinweis darauf, dass die Motive, die für die Trimerisierung von P2X-Untereinheiten essentiell sind, in der Ektodomäne liegen. Zusammenfassend belegen diese Ergebnisse, dass die Transmembranregionen bei der Assemblierung im Wesentlichen eine Funktion als hydrophobe Membrananker haben, die die korrekte Topologie und Positionierung der extrazellulären Assemblierungsdomänen ermöglichen. Die initiale Assemblierung wird durch die Ausbildung einer interhelikalen Wasserstoffbrücke über 355D stabilisiert. Somit können die wichtigsten Assemblierungsdomänen in Kontakt treten, die in der Ektodomäne lokalisiert sind.