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Counteridenticals are counterfactual conditional sentences whose antecedent clauses contain an identity statement, e.g. "If I were you, I’d buy the blue dress". Here, we argue that counteridenticals are best analyzed along the lines of dream reports. After showing that counteridenticals and dream reports exhibit striking grammatical and perceptual parallels, we suggest an analysis of counteridenticals with Percus and Sauerland’s (2003) analysis of dream reports. Following their proposal, we propose to make use of concept generators, realized as centered worlds. To this end, we argue that the presence of 'if' licenses the presence of an 'imagine'-operator, which constitutes the attitude the antecedent clause "x be-PAST y" is taken under. The speaker predicates, in the imagine mode, the consequent property to his/her imagined self.
To capture the different degrees of identification between the subject and the predicate of the identity statement of counteridenticals’ antecedents observed in the literature, we incorporate Percus and Sharvit’s (2014) notion of asymmetric be into the analysis. This proposal has several advantages over existing analyses (Lakoff, 1996; Kocurek, 2016) of counteridentical meaning, as it both explains the different degrees of identification observed for counteridenticals and correctly predicts the parallels between counteridenticals and dream reports.
The paper shows how the plural semantic ideas of (Sternefeld, 1998) can be captured in Lexical Resource Semantics, a system of underspecied semantics. It is argued that Sternefeld's original approach, which allows for the unrestricted insertion of pluralisation into Logical Form, suffers from a problem originally pointed out by Lasersohn (1989) with respect to the analysis offered by Gillon (1987). The problem is shown to stem from repeated pluralisation of the same verbal argument and to be amenable to a simple solution in the proposed lexical analysis, which allows for restricting the pluralisations that can be inserted. The paper further develops an account of maximalisation of pluralities as needed to obtain the correct readings for sentences with quantiers that are not upward monotone. Such an account is absent in the orginal system in (Sternefeld, 1998). The present account makes crucial use of the possibility to have distinct constituents contribute identical semantic material offered by LRS and employs it in an analysis of maximalisation in terms of polyadic quantication.
This study aims to analyze and develop a detailed model of syntax and semantics of passive sentences in standard Indonesian in the framework of Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar (HPSG) (Pollard & Sag, 1994; Sag et al., 2003) and Minimal Recursion Semantics (MRS) (Copestake et al., 2005), explicit enough to be interpreted by a computer, focusing on implementation rather than theory. There are two main types of passive in Indonesian, following Sneddon et al. (2010, pp. 256-260) and Alwi et al. (2014, pp. 352-356), called 'passive type 1' (P1) and 'passive type 2' (P2). Both types were analyzed and implemented in the Indonesian Resource Grammar (INDRA), a computational grammar for Indonesian (Moeljadi et al., 2015).
Der vorliegende Beitrag möchte die Perspektiven einer solchen akteursorientierten Diskursanalyse aufzeigen. Die Akteure stellen nämlich diejenige "Kraft" dar, die den Diskurs ins Leben ruft, diesen formuliert und dynamisiert. Auf die Lexik ausgerichtete Untersuchungen fokussieren in erster Linie auf die sprachliche Oberfläche, d.h. etwa auf Fahnenwörter, Schlüsselwörter oder auf die Metaphorik. Diese können jedoch erst als Endprodukte der sprachlichen Tätigkeit der Akteure betrachtet werden, in denen sich deren Motivationen, Meinungen, Positionierungen und Einstellungen konstituieren. Akteursorientierte Analysen möchten hingegen auch den Hintergrund beleuchten: die Ebene der Argumentation, die Topoi, die im Diskurs in konkreten Sprachgebrauchsmustern sich materialisieren. Diese Muster sind als kollektive Denkmuster zu betrachten, die einer Gemeinschaft im kollektiven Gedächtnis zur Verfügung stehen. Als kollektiv gespeichertes und durch die Sprache zugänglich gemachtes Wissen prägen sie das Weltbild der jeweiligen Sprachgemeinschaft. Das bedeutet zugleich, dass der Sprache eine fundamentale Rolle als wissensstiftendes Medium zukommt. Sie bestimmt, wie die Welt wahrgenommen und daraus Faktizität hergestellt wird. Ferner heißt das auch, dass Diskurse zugleich als Orientierungsrahmen dienen. Sie stellen den Sprachbenutzern Wissensbestände zur Verfügung, die sowohl bei der Deutung von Ereignissen und Entitäten eine kognitive Basis bilden, als auch eine Struktur anbieten, in die neue Kenntnisse integriert werden können.
Este artigo se propõe a discutir algumas questões de interesse tradutológico referentes às três traduções brasileiras (1950; 1977; 2017) da obra Der Witz und seine Beziehung zum Unbewussten, de Sigmund Freud - cuja primeira publicação data de 1905. Parte-se de argumentos expostos em um debate entre o poeta e tradutor brasileiro Haroldo de Campos e o tradutor francês de Freud, Jean Laplanche, acerca das possibilidades de traduzir os chistes citados por Freud no referido livro, para identificar as diferentes estratégias adotadas pelos tradutores brasileiros. Longe de apresentar uma análise completa das diversas versões ou um cotejo exaustivo entre o original e as três (re)traduções, o que este trabalho visa é defender que elas constituem aproximações diferentes – porém todas válidas e potencialmente relevantes para o leitor-alvo - em relação a determinados aspectos da obra "original".
We examine the fine structure of clausal right-node raising constructions in Japanese, and argue that there are sentences in which a tensed verb is right-node-raised out of coordinated tensed clauses as well as sentences in which a verb stem is right-node-raised out of coordinated tenseless phrases. In the latter case, the tense morpheme has to be assumed to take a tenseless complement clause, and we note that the existence of such a structure contradicts the so-called lexicalist hypothesis, according to which a verb stem and the tense morpheme immediately following it always form a morphosyntactic constituent.
The last decade has seen a sharp increase in the number of scientific publications describing physiological and pathological functions of extracellular vesicles (EVs), a collective term covering various subtypes of cell-released, membranous structures, called exosomes, microvesicles, microparticles, ectosomes, oncosomes, apoptotic bodies, and many other names. However, specific issues arise when working with these entities, whose size and amount often make them difficult to obtain as relatively pure preparations, and to characterize properly. The International Society for Extracellular Vesicles (ISEV) proposed Minimal Information for Studies of Extracellular Vesicles (“MISEV”) guidelines for the field in 2014. We now update these “MISEV2014” guidelines based on evolution of the collective knowledge in the last four years. An important point to consider is that ascribing a specific function to EVs in general, or to subtypes of EVs, requires reporting of specific information beyond mere description of function in a crude, potentially contaminated, and heterogeneous preparation. For example, claims that exosomes are endowed with exquisite and specific activities remain difficult to support experimentally, given our still limited knowledge of their specific molecular machineries of biogenesis and release, as compared with other biophysically similar EVs. The MISEV2018 guidelines include tables and outlines of suggested protocols and steps to follow to document specific EV-associated functional activities. Finally, a checklist is provided with summaries of key points.
The article presents an analysis of the development of labour market risks in Germany in light of changing working poverty risks. Low hourly wages and part-time employment are identified as the main demand-side-related mechanisms for household poverty. Their measurement and development are discussed as well as their contribution to trends in working poverty risks. A rise in low wages, especially among part-time employed households, was decisive for the increase in working poverty risks in Germany by 45% between the end of the 1990s and the end of the 2000s. We therefore study these trends more closely in the multivariate analysis. The results show that while low wages are unequally distributed across occupations and industries, shifts in employment between sectors explain only a minor part of the change in low wages. However, they reveal a polarization of low-wage risks by skill-level and sector of employment, on the one hand, and full-time and part-time employees, on the other hand.
Several peptides in clinical use are derived from non-ribosomal peptide synthetases (NRPS). In these systems multiple NRPS subunits interact with each other in a specific linear order mediated by specific docking domains (DDs), whose structures are not known yet, to synthesize well-defined peptide products. In contrast to classical NRPSs, single-module NRPS subunits responsible for the generation of rhabdopeptide/xenortide-like peptides (RXPs) can act in different order depending on subunit stoichiometry thereby producing peptide libraries. To define the basis for their unusual interaction patterns, we determine the structures of all N-terminal DDs (NDDs) as well as of an NDD-CDD complex and characterize all putative DD interactions thermodynamically for such a system. Key amino acid residues for DD interactions are identified that upon their exchange change the DD affinity and result in predictable changes in peptide production. Recognition rules for DD interactions are identified that also operate in other megasynthase complexes.
The interaction of trimethyl(methylcyclopentadienyl)platinum(IV) ((C5H4CH3)Pt(CH3)3) molecules on fully and partially hydroxylated SiO2 surfaces, as well as the dynamics of this interaction were investigated using density functional theory (DFT) and finite temperature DFT-based molecular dynamics simulations. Fully and partially hydroxylated surfaces represent substrates before and after electron beam treatment and this study examines the role of electron beam pretreatment on the substrates in the initial stages of precursor dissociation and formation of Pt deposits. Our simulations show that on fully hydroxylated surfaces or untreated surfaces, the precursor molecules remain inactivated while we observe fragmentation of (C5H4CH3)Pt(CH3)3 on partially hydroxylated surfaces. The behavior of precursor molecules on the partially hydroxylated surfaces has been found to depend on the initial orientation of the molecule and the distribution of surface active sites. Based on the observations from the simulations and available experiments, we discuss possible dissociation channels of the precursor.
Abstract
Inhibition of midbrain dopamine neurons is thought to underlie the signaling of events that are less rewarding than expected and drive learning based on these negative prediction errors. It has recently been shown that Kv4.3 channels influence the integration of inhibitory inputs in specific subpopulations of dopamine neurons. The functional properties of Kv4.3 channels are themselves strongly determined by the binding of auxiliary β-subunits; among them KChIP4a stands-out for its unique combination of modulatory effects. These include decreasing surface membrane trafficking and slowing inactivation kinetics. Therefore, we hypothesized that KChIP4a expression in dopamine neurons could play a crucial role in behavior, in particular by affecting the computation of negative prediction errors. We developed a mouse line where the alternative exon that codes for the KChIP4a splice variant was selectively deleted in midbrain dopamine neurons. In a reward-based reinforcement learning task, we observed that dopamine neuron-specific KChIP4a deletion selectively accelerated the rate of extinction learning, without impacting the acquisition of conditioned responses. We further found that this effect was due to a faster decrease in the initiation rate of goal-directed behaviors, and not faster increases in action disengagement. Furthermore, computational fitting of the behavioral data with a Rescorla-Wagner model confirmed that the observed phenotype was attributable to a selective increase in the learning rate from negative prediction errors. Finally, KChIP4a deletion did not affect performance in other dopamine-sensitive behavioral tasks that did not involve learning from disappointing events, including an absence of effects on working memory, locomotion and novelty preference. Taken together, our results demonstrate that an exon- and midbrain dopamine neuron-specific deletion of an A-type K+ channel β-subunit leads to a selective gain of function in extinction learning.
One Sentence Summary
Exon- and midbrain dopamine neuron-specific deletion of the Kv4 channel β-subunit KChIP4a selectively accelerates extinction learning
The tumor vasculature differs from normal blood vessels in morphology, composition and stability. Here, we describe a novel tumor vessel-disrupting mechanism. In an HT1080/mouse xenograft tumor model rhodocetin-αβ was highly effective in disrupting the tumor endothelial barrier. Mechanistically, rhodocetin-αβ triggered MET signaling via neuropilin-1. As both neuropilin-1 and MET were only lumen-exposed in a subset of abnormal tumor vessels, but not in normal vessels, the prime target of rhodocetin-αβ were these abnormal tumor vessels. Consequently, cells lining such tumor vessels became increasingly motile which compromised the vessel wall tightness. After this initial leakage, rhodocetin-αβ could leave the bloodstream and reach the as yet inaccessible neuropilin-1 on the basolateral side of endothelial cells and thus disrupt nearby vessels. Due to the specific neuropilin-1/MET co-distribution on cells lining such abnormal tumor vessels in contrast to normal endothelial cells, rhodocetin-αβ formed the necessary trimeric signaling complex of rhodocetin-αβ-MET-neuropilin-1 only in these abnormal tumor vessels. This selective attack of tumor vessels, sparing endothelial cell-lined vessels of normal tissues, suggests that the neuropilin-1-MET signaling axis may be a promising drugable target for anti-tumor therapy, and that rhodocetin-αβ may serve as a lead structure to develop novel anti-tumor drugs that target such vessels.
Despite a large body of research, the linguistic nature of exhaustivity in single wh-questions is unresolved. Moreover, little empirical evidence exists as to which related structures pattern with bare wh-questions regarding exhaustivity. This paper explores the felicity of various exhaustivity violations in unembedded single bare wh-questions in German and compares them to related structures. In two novel felicity judgment experiments, a total of 441 participants rated exhaustive as well as non-exhaustive plural and non-exhaustive singleton answers to wh-questions or statements in a questionnaire. Answers were based on picture stimuli depicting individuals performing various actions. The felicity of non-exhaustive answers was compared across four main test conditions: bare wh-questions (wer ‘who’), wh-questions with a lexical exhaustivity marker (wer alles ‘who all’), plural definite descriptions contained in a restrictive relative clause (e.g., “the people who are fishing in the garden”), and the scalar quantifier “some” (e.g., “some people who are fishing in the garden”).
We employ a novel methodological approach to improve the interpretability of statistical differences between experimental conditions by using the statistical measure of Minimal Important Difference (MID). Our results from estimated MIDs reveal that adults’ felicity judgments of non-exhaustive plural answers to bare wh-questions pattern with those to wer alles-questions and to plural definite descriptions: exhaustivity violations in the bare wh, the wer alles and the plural definite conditions were rated as less felicitous than exhaustivity violations in the some-condition.
Heat stress transcription factors (Hsfs) are required for transcriptional changes during heat stress (HS) thereby playing a crucial role in the heat stress response (HSR). The target genes of Hsfs include heat shock proteins (Hsps), other Hsfs and genes involved in protection of the cell from irreversible damages due to exposure to elevated temperatures. Among 27 Hsfs in Solanum lycopersicum, HsfA1a, HsfA2 and HsfB1 constitute a functional triad which regulates important aspects of the HSR. HsfA1a is constitutively expressed and described as the master regulator of stress response and thermotolerance. Activation of HsfA1a under elevated temperatures leads to the induction of HsfA2 and HsfB1 which further stimulate the transcription of HS-responsive genes by forming highly active complexes with HsfA1a. Despite the well-established role of these three Hsfs in tomato HSR, information about functional relevance of other Hsfs is currently missing.
The heat stress inducible HsfA7 belongs alongside with HsfA2 to a phylogenetically distinct clade. Thereby the two proteins share high homology and a functional redundancy has been assumed. However, HsfA7 function and contribution to stress responses have not been investigated into detail in any plant species.
Tomato HsfA7 protein accumulates already at moderately elevated temperatures (~35°C) while HsfA2 becomes dominant at higher temperatures (>40°C). HsfA7 pre-mRNA undergoes complex and temperature-dependent alternative splicing resulting in several transcripts that encode for three protein isoforms. HsfA7-I contains a functional nuclear export signal (NES) and shows nucleocytoplasmic shuttling while HsfA7-II and HsfA7-III have a truncated NES which leads to the strong nuclear retention of the protein. Differences in the nucleocytoplasmic equilibrium have a major impact on the stability of protein isoforms, as nuclear retention is associated with increased protein turnover. Consequently, HsfA7-I shows a higher stability and can be detected even after 24 hours of stress attenuation, while HsfA7-II is rapidly degraded. The degradation of these factors is mediated by the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway.
HsfA7 can physically interact with HsfA1a and HsfA3 and form co-activator (“superactivator”) complexes with a very high transcriptional activity as shown on different HS-inducible promoters. In order for the complex to be successfully transferred to the nucleus and confer its activity it needs a functional nuclear localization signal (NLS) of HsfA7. In contrast, the activator (AHA) motif of HsfA7 is not essential for its co-activator function. Interestingly, while interaction of HsfA7 with either HsfA3 or HsfA1a stabilizes HsfA7 isoforms, concomitantly this leads to an increased turnover of HsfA1a and HsfA3. In contrast, HsfA2 has a stabilizing effect on the master regulator HsfA1a.
Thus, HsfA7 knockout mutants generated by CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing, show increased HsfA1a levels and a stronger induction of HS-related genes at 35°C compared to wild-type plants and HsfA2 knockout mutants. Consequently, HsfA7 knockout seedlings exhibit increased thermotolerance as shown by the enhanced hypocotyl elongation under a prolonged mild stress treatment at 35°C. In summary, these results highlight the importance of HsfA7 in regulation of cellular responses at elevated temperatures. Under moderately elevated temperatures, the accumulation of HsfA7 and its subsequent interaction with HsfA1a, leads to increased turnover of the latter, thereby ensuring a milder transcriptional activation of temperature-responsive genes like Hsps. In turn, in response to further elevated temperatures, HsfA2 becomes the dominant stress-induced Hsf. HsfA2 forms co-activator complexes with HsfA1a which in contrast to HsfA7, allows the stabilization of the master regulator, leading to the stronger expression of HS-responsive genes required for survival. Thereby, this study uncovers a new regulatory mechanism, where the temperature-dependent competitive interaction of HsfA2 and HsfA7 with HsfA1a control the fate of the master regulator and consequently the activity of temperature-responsive networks.
In recent years, experimental research has demontrated great variability in the rates of scalar inferences across different triggering expressions (Doran et al. 2009, 2012, van Tiel et al. 2016). These studies have been taken as evidence against the so-called uniformity assumption, which posits that scalar implicature is triggered by a single mechanism and that the behaviour of one scale should generalize to the whole family of scales. In the following, we present an experimental study that tests negative strengthening for a variety of strong scalar terms, following up on van Tiel et al. (2016). For example, we tested whether the statement John is not brilliant is strengthened to mean that John is not intelligent (see especially Horn 1989). We show that endorsement rates of the scalar implicature (e.g., John is intelligent but not brilliant) are anti-correlated with endorsements of negative strengthening. Further, we demonstrate that a modified version of the uniformity hypothesis taking into account negative strengthening is consistent with van Tiel et al.’s data. Therefore, variation across scales may be more systematic than suggested by the van Tiel et al. study.
Miners and modals
(2018)
I generalise Kolodny and MacFarlane’s miners puzzle by showing epistemic analogues of their case exist. After motivating various conservative approaches to the original problem, I show how they fail to solve the problem in its epistemic guise. I argue that a probabilistic approach to information-sensitivity gives a general solution to the problem.
Wie Hashtags bei Twitter als Teile von Komposita verwendet werden, zeigt Markus Majewski in seinem Beitrag #Erdogan-Diktatur - Hashtags als Elemente von Substantivkomposita in politischen Tweets. Als Grundlage dient ihm das Korpus aus Tweets von SpitzenpolitikerInnen der großen Parteien während des Wahlkampfs, in dem er alle Substantivkomposita mit einem Hashtag als Bestandteil wie #Energiewende auf funktionale, graphematische und strukturelle Aspekte untersucht. Insbesondere bei der Schreibung der Komposita zeigt sich eine große Kreativität. Zudem lassen sich Twitter-spezifische Kommunikationsfunktionen der Hashtag-Erstglieder beobachten.
In these volumes, we are very pleased to present a collection of papers based on talks and posters at Sinn und Bedeutung 22, which took place in Berlin and Potsdam on September 7-10, 2017, jointly organized by the Leibniz-Centre for General Linguistics (ZAS) and the University of Potsdam.
SuB22 received 183 submitted abstracts. Out of these, the organizing committee selected 39 oral presentations in the main session, 4 oral presentations in the special session ‘Semantics and Natural Logic’, and 24 poster presentations. There were an additional 6 invited talks. In total, 58 of these contributions appear in paper form in the present volumes.
Dutch is well-known for the formation of verb clusters. A characteristic aspect of such constructions is that the order of the verbs may differ from the order in which they are selected. Across the Dutch language area verb clusters show different types of word order variation. This paper proposes a constructivist account of word order variation in Dutch verb clusters. Linearization is not modelled in terms of the GVOR feature, after Kathol (2000). Instead, it relies on the bidimensional phrase hierarchy initiated by Ginzburg & Sag (2000), which is extended for the analysis of constructions with verb clusters. This proposal accounts for the most common instances of word order variation in Dutch verb clusters, and it can be easily adapted to model a specific variety or dialect.