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Governance und Vertragsstrukturen in der deutschen VC Industrie: eine empirische Einschätzung
(2009)
Diese Arbeit analysiert die wesentlichen Elemente der Vertragsstrukturen in der Venture Capital-Industrie. Aufbauend auf einem sehr umfangreichen und detaillierten Datensatz, der die Verträge zwischen Venture Capital-Investoren und deren Portfoliounternehmen abbildet, werden die Kontroll-, Entscheidungs- und Vetorechte einer detaillierten Analyse unterzogen. Dabei zeigt sich eine klare Tendenz in der Entwicklung der Vertragsstrukturen in Deutschland hin zu angelsächsisch strukturierten Verträgen. Dies beinhaltet unter anderem eine verstärkte Verwendung von Kontroll- und Entscheidungsrechten aber auch ein breiteres Spektrum dieser Rechte. Außerdem finden wir eine klare Interaktionen zwischen Kontrollrechten, Cash-Flow Rechten und Liquidationsrechten. Insbesondere ist zu betonen, dass Cash-Flow und Kontrollrechte einerseits und Stimmrechte und Aufsichtsratsanteile andererseits separat alloziiert werden und viele Kontrollrechte als Komplemente und nicht als Substitute zueinander aufgefasst werden müssen. JEL Classification: G24, G32, D86, D80, G34
By adopting a variety of shapes, proteins can perform a wide number of functions in the cell, from being structural elements or enabling communication with the environment to performing complex enzymatic reactions needed to sustain metabolism. The number of proteins in the cell is limited by the number of genes encoding them. However, several mechanisms exist to increase the overall number of protein functions. One of them are post-translational modifications, i.e. covalent attachment of various molecules onto proteins. Ubiquitin was the first protein to be found to modify other proteins, and, faithful to its evocative name, it is involved in nearly all the activities of a cell. Ubiquitylation of proteins was believed for a long time only to be responsible for proteasomal degradation of modified proteins. However, with the discovery of various types of ubiquitylation, such as mono-, multiple- or poly-ubiquitylation, new functions of this post-translational modification emerged. Mono-ubiquitylation has been implicated in endocytosis, chromatin remodelling and DNA repair, while poly-ubiquitylation influences the half-life of proteins or modulates signal transduction pathways. DNA damage repair and tolerance are example of pathways extensively regulated by ubiquitylation. PCNA, a protein involved in nearly all types of DNA transaction, can undergo both mono- and poly-ubiquitylation. These modifications are believed to change the spectrum of proteins that interact with PCNA. Monoubiquitylation of PCNA is induced by stalling of replication forks when replicative polymerases (pols) encounter an obstacle, such as DNA damage or tight DNA-protein complexes. It is believed that monoubiquitylation of PCNA stimulates the exchange between replicative pols to one of polymerases that can synthesize DNA across various lesions, a mechanism of damage tolerance known as translesion synthesis (TLS). Our work has helped to understand why monoubiqutylation of PCNA favours this polymerase switch. We have identified two novel domains with the ability to bind Ub non-covalently. These domains are present in all the members of Y polymerases performing TLS, and were named Ub-binding zinc finger (UBZ) (in polη and polκ) and Ub-binding motif (UBM) (in polι and Rev1). We have shown that these domains enable Y polymerases to preferentially gain access to PCNA upon stalling of replication, when the action of translesion polymerases is required. While the region of direct interaction between Y pols and PCNA had been known (BRCT domain in Rev1 and PIP box motif (PIP) in three others members), we propose that Ub-binding domains (UBDs) in translesion Y pols enhance the PIP- or BRCT-domain-mediated interaction between these polymerases and PCNA by binding to the Ub moiety attached onto PCNA. Following these initial studies, we have also discovered that Y polymerases themselves undergo monoubiquitylation and that their UBDs mediate this modification. This auto-ubiquitylation is believed to lead to an intramolecular interaction between UBD and Ub attached in cis onto the UBD-containing protein. We have mapped monoubiquitylation sites in polη in the C-terminal portion of the protein containing the nuclear localization signal (NLS) and the PIP box. Beside PIP, the NLS motif is also involved in direct interaction of polη with PCNA. Based on these findings, we propose that monoubiquitylation of either NLS or PIP masks them from potential interaction with PCNA. Lastly, using several functional assays, we have demonstrated the importance of all these three motifs in the C-terminus of polη (UBZ, NLS and PIP) for efficient TLS. We have also constructed a mimic of monoubiquitylated polη by genetically fusing polη with Ub. Interestingly, this chimera is deficient in TLS as compared to the wild-type protein. Altogether, these studies demonstrate that the C-terminus of polη constitutes a regulatory module involved in multiple-site interaction with monoubiquitylated PCNA, and that monoubiquitylation of this region inhibits the interaction between polη and PCNA. Our work has also revealed that the UBDs of Y pols as well as of other proteins implicated in DNA damage repair and tolerance, such as the Werner helicase-interacting protein 1 (Wrnip1), are required for their proper sub-nuclear localization. All these proteins localize to discrete focal structures inside the nucleus and mutation of their UBDs results in inability to accumulate in these foci. Interestingly, by exchanging UBDs between different proteins we have learned that each UBD seems to have a distinct functional role, surprisingly not limited to Ubbinding ability. In fact, swapping the UBZ of Wrnip1 with the UBM of polι abolished the localization of Wrnip1 to foci despite preserving the Ub-binding ability of the chimeric protein. In summary, this work provides an overview of how post-translation modification of proteins by Ub can regulate several DNA transactions. Firstly, key regulators (e.g. PCNA) can be differentially modified by Ub. Secondly, specialized UBDs (e.g. UBM, UBZ) embedded only in a subset of proteins act as modules able to recognize these modifications. Thirdly, by means of mediating auto-ubiquitylation, UBDs can modulate the behaviour of host proteins by allowing for either in cis or in trans Ub-UBD interactions.
Seit den 1980er Jahren entwickelte sich in den Literaturwissenschaften die Fragestellung nach den literarischen Konstitutionsbedingungen der Beschreibung fremder Kulturen. Dies untersuchte vor allem die narrativen Entwürfe der Begegnung mit dem Fremden in fiktio-nalen Texten. Das Schaffen Hermann Hesses bildet ein Beispiel dafür, dass unterschiedliche Mentalitäten unterschiedliche Wahrnehmungsformen von Kulturen präformieren.
The utility-maximizing consumption and investment strategy of an individual investor receiving an unspanned labor income stream seems impossible to find in closed form and very dificult to find using numerical solution techniques. We suggest an easy procedure for finding a specific, simple, and admissible consumption and investment strategy, which is near-optimal in the sense that the wealthequivalent loss compared to the unknown optimal strategy is very small. We first explain and implement the strategy in a simple setting with constant interest rates, a single risky asset, and an exogenously given income stream, but we also show that the success of the strategy is robust to changes in parameter values, to the introduction of stochastic interest rates, and to endogenous labor supply decisions.
This dissertation consists of three chapters. The first two chapters investigate the real effects of inflation and the third chapter the role of child care for fertility and female female labor supply. Chapter 1 introduces a generalized panel threshold model to analyze the relation between inflation and economic growth for a sample of developing countries. It is demonstrated that allowing for regime intercepts can be crucial for obtaining unbiased estimates of both, inflation thresholds and its marginal effects on growth in the various regimes. The empirical results confirm that the omitted variable bias of standard panel threshold models can be statistically and economically significant. Chapter 2, which is joined work with Dieter Nautz, investigates the impact of inflation on relative price variability (RPV) as a further important channel of the real effects of inflation. With a view to the recent debate on the Fed's implicit lower and upper bounds of its inflation objective, the econometric model introduced in Chapter 1 is used to explore the inflation-RPV linkage in U.S. cities. Chapter 3 investigates the relationship between fertility, female labor supply and child care in the context of a life cycle model for Germany. A particular emphasis is placed on the differences between West and East Germany. Counterfactual policy experiments mimicking recent policy reforms on maternal leave and the provision of subsidized child care are conducted with a structurally estimated version of the model.
The title compound, C14H11NO4, crystallizes with two molecules in the asymmetric unit. The major conformational difference between these two molecules is the dihedral angle between the aromatic rings, namely 36.99 (5) and 55.04 (5)°. The nitro groups are coplanar with the phenyl rings to which they are attached, the O—N—C—C torsion angles being -1.9 (3) and 1.0 (3)° in the two molecules.
Zwischen Bilateralismus und Multilateralismus : die Zentralasienpolitik der Volksrepublik China
(2009)
Die Außenpolitik der Volksrepublik China (VRC) ist im Wandel begriffen. Nur ein – wenngleich wesentlicher – Ausdruck dessen ist die erst seit wenigen Jahren zu beobachtende Entwicklung, dass sich die VRC vermehrt multilateralen Institutionen zuwendet und diese mittlerweile zum Teil gar selbst initiiert. Dieser Trend stellt eine radikale Kehrtwende gegenüber dem dar, was die VRC seit ihrer Gründung 1949 noch bis weit in die 1990er-Jahre hinein mit Multilateralismus (ML) assoziiert hat – nämlich Mechanismen zur Strafung und Einengung der VRC. Doch welche praktische Bedeutung kommt multilateralen Wirkungsweisen innerhalb der chinesischen Außenpolitik in jüngster Zeit tatsächlich zu? Die vorliegende Magisterarbeit beschäftigt sich mit dieser Fragestellung, indem sie zu analysieren sucht, welche Rolle multilaterale Strukturen – im Gegensatz zu bilateralen – bei der Implementierung chinesischer außenpolitischer Interessen spielen. Dies geschieht anhand eines einzigartigen Fallbeispiels, und zwar der chinesischen Zentralasienpolitik, innerhalb der wiederum die Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) eine herausragende Stellung einnimmt. Diese Organisation ist das einzige multilaterale Forum, an dem die VRC von Beginn an als der maßgebende Akteur im Hinblick auf ideelle, konzeptionelle und inhaltliche Belange teilgenommen hat. Entsprechend ist davon auszugehen, dass die Untersuchung ein Höchstmaß an Einblicken in den tatsächlich intendierten Zweck des chinesischen ML zu liefern vermag. Die Analyse zeigt, dass multilaterale Vorgehensweisen in quantitativer Hinsicht seit Gründung der SCO im Jahre 2001 stark zugenommen haben, und das auf allen vier identifizierten Hauptinteressensgebieten der VRC in Zentralasien: Sicherheit, Wirtschaft, Energie und Geopolitik. Mit Blick auf die qualitative Komponente ist indessen zu konstatieren, dass dem ML, den China in der Region praktiziert, einige negativ behaftete Charakteristika zu eigen sind. Die Attribute „flexibel“, „selektiv“, „flach“ und „instrumentalisiert“, die derzeit weitgehend als prägend für den chinesischen ML in seiner Gesamtheit angesehen werden, besitzen auch – und gerade – in Zentralasien ihre Gültigkeit. Insgesamt fällt auf, dass die VRC multilaterale Strategien nur dann verfolgt, wenn der kurzfristige Eigennutzen über den bilateraler Mechanismen hinausgeht. Und auch dann hört der Rückgriff auf ML dort auf, wo der eigene Gewinn ein Maximum erreicht. Somit bleiben die chinesischen Machthaber den Praxisbeweis einer integrativen Funktion von ML noch schuldig.
P2X receptors represent the third superfamily of ligand gated ion channels with ATP as their natural ligand. Most of the mammalian P2X receptors are non-selective cation channels, which upon activation, mediate membrane depolarization and have physiological roles ranging from fast excitatory synaptic transmission, modulation of pain-sensation, LTP to apoptosis etc. In spite of them being an attractive drug target, their potential as a drug target is limited by the lack of basic understanding of the structure-function relationship of these receptors. In my thesis, I have investigated the behavior of homomeric P2X receptor subunits with the help of photolabeling and fluorescence techniques coupled to electrophysiological measurements using Xenopus laevis oocytes heterologous expression system. Concurrent photolabeling by BzATP and current recordings from the same set of receptors in real time has revealed that the gating process in homomeric P2X receptors is contributed individually by each subunit in an additive manner. Our study for the first time describes the agonist potency of Alexa-ATP (a fluorescent ATP analog) on P2X1 receptors. The use of Alexa-ATP in our experiments elucidated that receptor subunits are not independent but interacting with each other in a cooperative manner. The type of cooperativity, however, depended on the type and concentrations of allosteric/competing ligands. Based on our results, in my thesis we propose an allosteric model for ligand-receptor interactions in P2X receptors. When simulated, the model could replicate our experimental findings thus, further validating our model. Further, correlation between occupancy of P2X1 receptors (determined using binding curve for Alexa-ATP) with the steady-state desensitization suggests that binding of three agonist molecules per receptor are required to desensitize P2X1 receptors. We further extended the approach of fluorescence with electrophysiological measurement to assign the role for different domains in P2X1 receptors with the help of environmental sensitive, cysteine reactive fluorophore (TMRM). Cysteine rich domain-1 of P2X1 receptors (C117-C165) was found to be involved in structural rearrangements after agonist and antagonist binding. In contrast to the present understanding, that the binding of an antagonist cannot induce desensitization in P2X1 receptors and the receptors need to open first before undergoing desensitization, we propose based on our results that a competitive antagonist can also induce desensitization in P2X1 receptors by bypassing the open state. We have attempted to answer few intriguing questions in the field of P2X receptor research and we think that our answers provide many avenues to the basic understanding of functioning of P2X receptors.
Opting out of the great inflation: German monetary policy after the break down of Bretton Woods
(2009)
During the turbulent 1970s and 1980s the Bundesbank established an outstanding reputation in the world of central banking. Germany achieved a high degree of domestic stability and provided safe haven for investors in times of turmoil in the international financial system. Eventually the Bundesbank provided the role model for the European Central Bank. Hence, we examine an episode of lasting importance in European monetary history. The purpose of this paper is to highlight how the Bundesbank monetary policy strategy contributed to this success. We analyze the strategy as it was conceived, communicated and refined by the Bundesbank itself. We propose a theoretical framework (following Söderström, 2005) where monetary targeting is interpreted, first and foremost, as a commitment device. In our setting, a monetary target helps anchoring inflation and inflation expectations. We derive an interest rate rule and show empirically that it approximates the way the Bundesbank conducted monetary policy over the period 1975-1998. We compare the Bundesbank´s monetary policy rule with those of the FED and of the Bank of England. We find that the Bundesbank´s policy reaction function was characterized by strong persistence of policy rates as well as a strong response to deviations of inflation from target and to the activity growth gap. In contrast, the response to the level of the output gap was not significant. In our empirical analysis we use real-time data, as available to policy-makers at the time. JEL Classification: E31, E32, E41, E52, E58
T-Lymphozyten spielen eine entscheidende Rolle in der Pathophysiologie der Rheumatoiden Arthritis. Sie fördern einerseits die perpetuierende Entzündung innerhalb der Membran und besitzen andererseits die Fähigkeit auf die Inflammationen regulativ bzw. suppressiv zu wirken. In der hier vorliegenden Arbeit wurde untersucht, ob entzündungsfördernde T-Zellprodukte und regulatorische T-Zellpopulationen innerhalb der Synovialmembran nachweisbar sind, und wie unstimulierte periphere TZellen auf Synovialmembranzellen "in vitro" reagieren. Innerhalb der Synovialmembran konnte eine Population von CD4(+)CD25(+) regulatorischen T-Zellen (Tregs) durchflusszytometrisch nachgewiesen werden. Immunhistochemische Analysen des Gewebes konnten eine Akkumulation dieser Zellen innerhalb von Sekundärfollikeln des Synovialmembrans nachweisen. Die ELISPOT-Analyse ausgewählter Zytokine resultierte in der Detektion immunsuppressiver (IL-10) und immunstimulatorischer Zytokine in Synovialmembranzellkultur. Hier konnte erstmalig eine autologe IFN-gamma Produktion auf Proteinebene nachgewiesen werden. Klinische Betrachtungen der IFN-gamma Produktion zeigten eine starke Assoziation mit dem Rheumafaktor. Zusätzlich findet sich eine tendenzielle Abnahme der immunstimulatorischen Kapazität mit der Dauer der Erkrankung. Eine Betrachtung der intrasynovialen IL-10 Produktion unter Berücksichtigung des klinischen Entzündungsparameter CRP, zeigt einen starken Zusammenhang zwischen den beiden Parametern. ELISPOT Analysen einer Co-Kultur zwischen autologen CD4(+) und CD8(+) PBMCs und Synovialmembranzellen ergaben eine Abnahme der autologen IFN-gamma Produktion ohne Zunahme der Interleukin- 10 Produktion. Eine Aktivierung der Zellkultur lässt diesen Effekt verschwinden. Durch Aufreinigung der PBMCs konnte der stärkste suppressive Effekt innerhalb der CD4(+)CD25(+) T-Zellfraktion nachgewiesen werden, welcher marginal durch Aktivierung der Zellkultur unterbrochen werden konnte. Regulatorische Effekte konnten auch innerhalb der CD8(+) T-Zellfraktion dokumentiert werden, welche sich aber durch spezifische anti-CD3 Ab und anti-CD28 Ab Aktivierung verliert. Die Beeinflussung der suppressiven Eigenschaften von T-Zellen bzw. ihrer spezialisierten T-Zellpopulationen könnte in Zukunft zu einer besseren Therapie der Rheumatoiden Arthritis führen.