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During erythropoiesis, haematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) differentiate in successive steps of commitment and specification to mature erythrocytes. This differentiation process is controlled by transcription factors that establish stage- and cell type-specific gene expression. In this study, we demonstrate that FUSE binding protein 1 (FUBP1), a transcriptional regulator important for HSC self-renewal and survival, is regulated by T-cell acute lymphocytic leukaemia 1 (TAL1) in erythroid progenitor cells. TAL1 directly activates the FUBP1 promoter, leading to increased FUBP1 expression during erythroid differentiation. The binding of TAL1 to the FUBP1 promoter is highly dependent on an intact GATA sequence in a combined E-box/GATA motif. We found that FUBP1 expression is required for efficient erythropoiesis, as FUBP1-deficient progenitor cells were limited in their potential of erythroid differentiation. Thus, the finding of an interconnection between GATA1/TAL1 and FUBP1 reveals a molecular mechanism that is part of the switch from progenitor- to erythrocyte-specific gene expression. In summary, we identified a TAL1/FUBP1 transcriptional relationship, whose physiological function in haematopoiesis is connected to proper erythropoiesis.
Allogeneic stem cell transplantation (allo-SCT) has become an important treatment modality for patients with high-risk acute myeloid leukemia (AML) and is also under investigation for soft tissue sarcomas. The therapeutic success is still limited by minimal residual disease (MRD) status ultimately leading to patients’ relapse. Adoptive donor lymphocyte infusions based on MRD status using IL-15-expanded cytokine-induced killer (CIK) cells may prevent relapse without causing graft-versus-host-disease (GvHD). To generate preclinical data we developed mouse models to study anti-leukemic- and anti-tumor-potential of CIK cells in vivo. Immunodeficient mice (NOD/SCID/IL-2Rγc−, NSG) were injected intravenously with human leukemic cell lines THP-1, SH-2 and with human rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) cell lines RH41 and RH30 at minimal doses required for leukemia or tumor engraftment. Mice transplanted with THP-1 or RH41 cells were randomly assigned for analysis of CIK cell treatment. Organs of mice were analyzed by flow cytometry as well as quantitative polymerase chain reaction for engraftment of malignant cells and CIK cells. Potential of CIK cells to induce GvHD was determined by histological analysis. Tissues of the highest degree of THP-1 cell expansion included bone marrow followed by liver, lung, spleen, peripheral blood (PB), and brain. RH30 and RH41 engraftment mainly took place in liver and lung, but was also detectable in spleen and PB. In spite of delayed CIK cell expansion compared with malignant cells, CIK cells injected at equal amounts were sufficient for significant reduction of RH41 cells, whereas against fast-expanding THP-1 cells 250 times more CIK than THP-1 cells were needed to achieve comparable results. Our preclinical in vivo mouse models showed a reliable 100% engraftment of malignant cells which is essential for analysis of anti-cancer therapy. Furthermore our data demonstrated that IL-15-activated CIK cells have potent cytotoxic capacity against AML and RMS cells without causing GvHD.
Hematopoietic differentiation is controlled by key transcription factors, which regulate stem cell functions and differentiation. TAL1 is a central transcription factor for hematopoietic stem cell development in the embryo and for gene regulation during erythroid/megakaryocytic differentiation. Knowledge of the target genes controlled by a given transcription factor is important to understand its contribution to normal development and disease. To uncover direct target genes of TAL1 we used high affinity streptavidin/biotin-based chromatin precipitation (Strep-CP) followed by Strep-CP on ChIP analysis using ChIP promoter arrays. We identified 451 TAL1 target genes in K562 cells. Furthermore, we analysed the regulation of one of these genes, the catalytic subunit beta of protein kinase A (PRKACB), during megakaryopoiesis of K562 and primary human CD34+ stem cell/progenitor cells. We found that TAL1 together with hematopoietic transcription factors RUNX1 and GATA1 binds to the promoter of the isoform 3 of PRKACB (Cβ3). During megakaryocytic differentiation a coactivator complex on the Cβ3 promoter, which includes WDR5 and p300, is replaced with a corepressor complex. In this manner, activating chromatin modifications are removed and expression of the PRKACB-Cβ3 isoform during megakaryocytic differentiation is reduced. Our data uncover a role of the TAL1 complex in controlling differential isoform expression of PRKACB. These results reveal a novel function of TAL1, RUNX1 and GATA1 in the transcriptional control of protein kinase A activity, with implications for cellular signalling control during differentiation and disease.
Bovine mitochondrial ATP synthase commonly is isolated as a monomeric complex that contains 16 protein subunits and the natural IF1 inhibitor protein in substoichiometric amounts. Alternatively ATP synthase can be isolated in dimeric and higher oligomeric states using digitonin for membrane solubilization and blue native or clear native electrophoresis for separation of the native mitochondrial complexes. Using blue native electrophoresis we could identify two ATP synthase-associated membrane proteins with masses smaller than 7 kDa and isoelectric points close to 10 that previously had been removed during purification. We show that in the mitochondrial membrane both proteins are almost quantitatively bound to ATP synthase. Both proteins had been identified earlier in a different context, but their association with ATP synthase was unknown. The first one had been named 6.8-kDa mitochondrial proteolipid because it can be isolated by chloroform/methanol extraction from mitochondrial membranes. The second one had been denoted as diabetes-associated protein in insulin-sensitive tissue (DAPIT), which may provide a clue for further functional and clinical investigations.
Die Arbeit überprüft die Zusammensetzung der F1FO-ATP-Synthase in Säugetiermitochondrien, dem Enzymkomplex, der das meiste ATP für den Energiebedarf einer Zelle liefert. Es sind zwei neue Proteine identifiziert und als ATP-Synthase assoziiert verifiziert worden, das sog. dapit protein (diabetes-associated protein in insulin-sensitive tissue; Datenbanknummer in NCBI für Rattus norvegicus, gi|19424210) bzw. 6.8 kDa mitochondrial proteolipid (Datenbanknummer in NCBI für Rattus norvegicus, gi|109478763). Bis jetzt sind beide Proteine nicht zusammen mit dem Komplex V detektiert worden, da es sich bei beiden Proteinen um sehr kleine Membranproteine (kleiner 7 kDa) handelt und sie sehr leicht in Gegenwart von Detergenzien verloren gehen. Die etablierte Strategie zur milden Aufreinigung von Komplex V, die eingesetzte gelelektrophoretische Trennung und die gewonnenen Erkenntnisse zur Identifizierung solch kleiner Proteine können sicherlich auch Lösungsansätze für andere ungelöste Problemfälle in der Proteinkomplexanalytik liefern. Da beide neuen Proteine in die Modulation des metabolischen Zellzustandes involviert sein könnten, sind die erarbeiteten Daten für weitere funktionelle und biochemische Untersuchungen der ATP-Synthase äußerst nützlich. Außerdem könnten die Ergebnisse für neurologische und klinische Studien hinsichtlich der Ursachenforschung von Funktionsstörungen in den Mitochondrien von Interesse sein, da eines der zwei neuen Proteine früher schon mit Diabetes in Zusammenhang gebracht worden ist (dapit, diabetesassociated protein in insulin-sensitive tissue). Für ein bakterielles Multihäm c-Typ Cytochrom konnte massenspektrometrisch gezeigt werden, dass es auf eine unkonventionelle Weise Häm bindet. Durch massenspektrometrische Charakterisierung des Proteins konnte erstmals nachgewiesen werden, dass es nicht nur die Häm c-Bindemotive CX2-4CH und CXXCK, sondern auch Häm c-Bindemotive der Form CXnCH in Bakterien gibt. Diese Erkenntnis führt in der Molekularbiologie zu neuen Fragen, z. B. welche speziellen Lyasen (cytochrome c haem lyases) letztendlich für das Einfügen der Häm-Gruppe an solche neuen Motive verantwortlich sind. Auch die computerbasierte Vorhersage von c-Typ Cytochromen wird dieses Wissen wohl zukünftig in Suchstrategien umsetzen, um die neuen Häm c-Bindemotive bei der Genomanalyse von Organismen nicht zu übersehen. In dem Feld der Identifizierung und Charakterisierung von Membranproteinen im Allgemeinen konnten grundlegende Erkenntnisse zum Umgang mit alternativen Enzymen und deren Potential für einen zukünftigen Einsatz erarbeitet werden. Schwerpunktmäßig wurden die Enzyme Chymotrypsin, Elastase und Pepsin untersucht. Es konnte für alle drei Kandidaten gezeigt werden, dass sie bevorzugt an einer begrenzten Anzahl von Aminosäuren spalten. Besonders für Elastase ist diese Erkenntnis neu, da sie in der Literatur bisher als unspezifisches Enzym wie Proteinase K geführt wurde. Auch wenn die Spezifität der drei Enzyme nicht zu 100% wie bei Trypsin festgelegt werden kann, sondern es sich nur um eine Bevorzugung gewisser Aminosäuren handelt, sind die enzymatischen Spaltungen reproduzierbar. Selbst eine Auswertung der MS-Spektren mittels Peptide Mass Fingerprint (PMF) ist deshalb auch bei diesen weniger spezifischen Enzymen möglich. Die Intensität der MS-Signale muss aber berücksichtigt werden, was bei bisherigen PMF-Suchen jedoch nicht in der Art und Weise geschieht, wie es für diese Enzyme nötig wäre. An einigen Membranproteinen konnte letztendlich bereits beispielhaft gezeigt werden, dass der Einsatz von weniger spezifischen Enzymen für die Identifizierung des Proteins und der nachfolgenden Charakterisierung (z. B. Identifizierung von posttranslationale Modifikationen) vorteilhaft ist. Für Elastase konnte in diesem Zusammenhang auch demonstriert werden, dass sie problemlos in Lösungsmittelsystemen mit einem hohen organischen Anteil (Acetonitril, Isopropanol, Methanol) einsetzbar ist. 100% Sequenzabdeckung lassen sich aber auch bei weniger spezifischen Enzymen trotz der größeren Anzahl an Schnittmöglichkeiten nur erahnen. Zwei Hauptursachen hierfür sind wahrscheinlich die schlechte Zugänglichkeit des Enzyms zum Membranprotein bzw. die Bevorzugung bestimmter enzymatischer Fragmente in MALDI und ESI. Polyacrylamidgele mit alternativen Quervernetzern, bei denen sich die Geldichte vor dem Verdau verringern lässt, könnten die Zugänglichkeit zum Membranprotein zukünftig vielleicht positiv beeinflussen. Der Einsatz von organischen Lösungsmitteln und bestimmter Detergenzien beim Verdau verbessert ebenfalls die Zugänglichkeit zum Membranprotein. Die Zahl der Tenside, die mit der Massenspektrometrie sehr gut kompatibel sind, ist aber sehr gering, wie Untersuchungen in dieser Arbeit ebenfalls ergeben haben. Außerdem beschränkt sich die Anwendung von diesen Detergenzien ausschließlich auf MALDI. Die zu erwartenden Fortschritte bei der Identifizierung und Charakterisierung von Membranproteinen umschreibt daher besonders gut ein Aphorismus von Christian Morgenstern (deutscher Schriftsteller; 1871 – 1914): „Es gibt nur ein Neues: Die Nuance.“ Einige Nuancen sind in dieser Arbeit enthalten. In der Zukunft werden aber viele weitere solcher Nuancen das Überwinden der Hürde „Membran Proteomics“ immer realistischer werden lassen.
Transport proteins exhibiting broad substrate specificities are major determinants for the phenomenon of multidrug resistance. The Escherichia coli multidrug transporter EmrE, a 4-transmembrane, helical 12-kDa membrane protein, forms a functional dimer to transport a diverse array of aromatic, positively charged substrates in a proton/drug antiport fashion. Here, we report (13)C chemical shifts of the essential residue Glu(14) within the binding pocket. To ensure a native environment, EmrE was reconstituted into E. coli lipids. Experiments were carried out using one- and two-dimensional double quantum filtered (13)C solid state NMR. For an unambiguous assignment of Glu(14), an E25A mutation was introduced to create a single glutamate mutant. Glu(14) was (13)C-labeled using cell-free expression. Purity, labeling, homogeneity, and functionality were probed by mass spectrometry, NMR spectroscopy, freeze fracture electron microscopy, and transport assays. For Glu(14), two distinct sets of chemical shifts were observed that indicates structural asymmetry in the binding pocket of homodimeric EmrE. Upon addition of ethidium bromide, chemical shift changes and altered line shapes were observed, demonstrating substrate coordination by both Glu(14) in the dimer.
Mitochondrial complex I (NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase) undergoes reversible deactivation upon incubation at 30–37 °C. The active/deactive transition could play an important role in the regulation of complex I activity. It has been suggested recently that complex I may become modified by S-nitrosation under pathological conditions during hypoxia or when the nitric oxide:oxygen ratio increases. Apparently, a specific cysteine becomes accessible to chemical modification only in the deactive form of the enzyme. By selective fluorescence labeling and proteomic analysis, we have identified this residue as cysteine-39 of the mitochondrially encoded ND3 subunit of bovine heart mitochondria. Cysteine-39 is located in a loop connecting the first and second transmembrane helix of this highly hydrophobic subunit. We propose that this loop connects the ND3 subunit of the membrane arm with the PSST subunit of the peripheral arm of complex I, placing it in a region that is known to be critical for the catalytic mechanism of complex I. In fact, mutations in three positions of the loop were previously reported to cause Leigh syndrome with and without dystonia or progressive mitochondrial disease.
The genetic make-up of an individual contributes to the susceptibility and response to viral infection. Although environmental, clinical and social factors have a role in the chance of exposure to SARS-CoV-2 and the severity of COVID-191,2, host genetics may also be important. Identifying host-specific genetic factors may reveal biological mechanisms of therapeutic relevance and clarify causal relationships of modifiable environmental risk factors for SARS-CoV-2 infection and outcomes. We formed a global network of researchers to investigate the role of human genetics in SARS-CoV-2 infection and COVID-19 severity. Here we describe the results of three genome-wide association meta-analyses that consist of up to 49,562 patients with COVID-19 from 46 studies across 19 countries. We report 13 genome-wide significant loci that are associated with SARS-CoV-2 infection or severe manifestations of COVID-19. Several of these loci correspond to previously documented associations to lung or autoimmune and inflammatory diseases3,4,5,6,7. They also represent potentially actionable mechanisms in response to infection. Mendelian randomization analyses support a causal role for smoking and body-mass index for severe COVID-19 although not for type II diabetes. The identification of novel host genetic factors associated with COVID-19 was made possible by the community of human genetics researchers coming together to prioritize the sharing of data, results, resources and analytical frameworks. This working model of international collaboration underscores what is possible for future genetic discoveries in emerging pandemics, or indeed for any complex human disease.
Gephyrin is an ubiquitously expressed protein that, in the nervous system, is essential for synaptic anchoring of glycine receptors (GlyRs) and major GABAA receptor subtypes. The binding of gephyrin to the GlyR depends on an amphipathic motif within the large intracellular loop of the GlyRβ subunit. The mouse gephyrin gene consists of 30 exons. Ten of these exons, encoding cassettes of 5–40 amino acids, are subject to alternative splicing (C1–C7, C4′–C6′). Since one of the cassettes, C5′, has recently been reported to exclude GlyRs from GABAergic synapses, we investigated which cassettes are found in gephyrin associated with the GlyR. Gephyrin variants were purified from rat spinal cord, brain, and liver by binding to the glutathione S-transferase-tagged GlyRβ loop or copurified with native GlyR from spinal cord by affinity chromatography and analyzed by mass spectrometry. In addition to C2 and C6′, already known to be prominent, C4 was found to be abundant in gephyrin from all tissues examined. The nonneuronal cassette C3 was easily detected in liver but not in GlyR-associated gephyrin from spinal cord. C5 was present in brain and spinal cord polypeptides, whereas C5′ was coisolated mainly from liver. Notably C5′-containing gephyrin bound to the GlyRβ loop, inconsistent with its proposed selectivity for GABAA receptors. Our data show that GlyR-associated gephyrin, lacking C3, but enriched in C4 without C5, differs from other neuronal and nonneuronal gephyrin isoforms.
Hematopoietic differentiation is driven by transcription factors, which orchestrate a finely tuned transcriptional network. At bipotential branching points lineage decisions are made, where key transcription factors initiate cell type-specific gene expression programs. These programs are stabilized by the epigenetic activity of recruited chromatin-modifying cofactors. An example is the association of the transcription factor RUNX1 with protein arginine methyltransferase 6 (PRMT6) at the megakaryocytic/erythroid bifurcation. However, little is known about the specific influence of PRMT6 on this important branching point. Here, we show that PRMT6 inhibits erythroid gene expression during megakaryopoiesis of primary human CD34+ progenitor cells. PRMT6 is recruited to erythroid genes, such as glycophorin A. Consequently, a repressive histone modification pattern with high H3R2me2a and low H3K4me3 is established. Importantly, inhibition of PRMT6 by shRNA or small molecule inhibitors leads to upregulation of erythroid genes and promotes erythropoiesis. Our data reveal that PRMT6 plays a role in the control of erythroid/megakaryocytic differentiation and open up the possibility that manipulation of PRMT6 activity could facilitate enhanced erythropoiesis for therapeutic use.
