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In its soluble form, the extracellular matrix proteoglycan biglycan triggers the synthesis of the macrophage chemoattractants, chemokine (C-C motif) ligand CCL2 and CCL5 through selective utilization of Toll-like receptors (TLRs) and their adaptor molecules. However, the respective downstream signaling events resulting in biglycan-induced CCL2 and CCL5 production have not yet been defined. Here, we show that biglycan stimulates the production and activation of sphingosine kinase 1 (SphK1) in a TLR4- and Toll/interleukin (IL)-1R domain-containing adaptor inducing interferon (IFN)-β (TRIF)-dependent manner in murine primary macrophages. We provide genetic and pharmacological proof that SphK1 is a crucial downstream mediator of biglycan-triggered CCL2 and CCL5 mRNA and protein expression. This is selectively driven by biglycan/SphK1-dependent phosphorylation of the nuclear factor NF-κB p65 subunit, extracellular signal-regulated kinase (Erk)1/2 and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinases. Importantly, in vivo overexpression of soluble biglycan causes Sphk1-dependent enhancement of renal CCL2 and CCL5 and macrophage recruitment into the kidney. Our findings describe the crosstalk between biglycan- and SphK1-driven extracellular matrix- and lipid-signaling. Thus, SphK1 may represent a new target for therapeutic intervention in biglycan-evoked inflammatory conditions.
Ceramides induce important intracellular signaling pathways, modulating proliferation, migration, apoptosis, and inflammation. However, the relevance of the ceramide metabolism in the reconvalescence phase after stroke is unclear. Besides its well-known property as a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor, fluoxetine has been reported to inhibit the acid sphingomyelinase (ASM), a key regulator of ceramide levels which derives ceramide from sphingomyelin. Furthermore, fluoxetine has shown therapeutic potential in a randomized controlled rehabilitation trial in stroke patients. Our aim was to investigate and modulate ceramide concentrations in the peri-infarct cortex, whose morphological and functional properties correlate with long-term functional outcome in stroke. We show that certain ceramide species are modulated after experimental stroke and that these changes do not result from alterations of ASM activity, but rather from nontranscriptional induction of the ceramide de novo pathway. Unexpectedly, although reducing lesion size, fluoxetine did not improve functional outcome in our model and had no significant influence on ASM activity or the concentration of ceramides. The ceramide metabolism could emerge as a potential therapeutic target in the reconvalescence phase after stroke, as its accumulation in the peri-infarct cortex potentially influences membrane functions as well as signaling events in the tissue essential for neurological recovery.
Background/Aims: Sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) is considered as a key molecule regulating various cell functions including cell growth and death. It is produced by two sphingosine kinases (SK) denoted as SK-1 and SK-2. Whereas SK-1 has been extensively studied and has been appointed a role in promoting cell growth, the function of SK-2 is controversial, and both pro-proliferative and pro-apoptotic functions have been suggested. In this study we investigated whether renal mesangial cells isolated from transgenic mice overexpressing the human Sphk2 gene (hSK2-tg) showed an altered cell response towards growth-inducing and apoptotic stimuli.
Methods: hSK2-tg mice were generated by using a Quick KnockinR strategy. Renal mesangial cells were isolated by a differential sieving method and further cultivated in vitro. Lipids were quantified by mass spectrometry. Protein expression was determined by Western blot analysis, cell proliferation was determined by 3H-thymidine incorporation, and apoptosis was determined by a DNA fragmentation ELISA.
Results: We show here that kidneys and mesangial cells from hSK2-tg mice express the hSK2 as well as the endogenous mouse mSK2. hSK2 and mSK2 predominantly resided in the cytosol of quiescent transgenic cells. However, S1P accumulated strongly in the nucleus and only minimally in the cytosol of transgenic cells. Functionally, hSK2-tg cells proliferated less than control cells under normal growth conditions and were also more sensitive towards stress-induced apoptosis. On the molecular level, this was reflected by reduced ERK and Akt/PKB activation, and upon staurosporine treatment, by a sensitized mitochondrial pathway as manifested by reduced anti-apoptotic Bcl-XL expression and increased cleavage of caspase-9, downstream caspase-3 and PARP-1.
Conclusion: Altogether, these data demonstrate that SK-2 exerts an antiproliferative and apoptosis-sensitizing effect in renal mesangial cells which suggests that selective inhibitors of SK-2 may promote proliferation and reduce apoptosis and this may have impact on the outcome of proliferation-associated diseases such as mesangioproliferative glomerulonephritis.
Bioaktive Sphingolipide spielen eine wichtige Rolle bei der Regulation vieler entscheidender Prozesse in Endothelzellen. Speziell dem S1P wird eine Schlüsselfunktion in der Regulation der Proliferation und Migration von Endothelzellen beigemessen. Diese Prozesse sind notwendige Teilschritte in der Angiogenese, welche eine wichtige biologische und medizinische Bedeutung hat. So ist die umorangiogenese eine Voraussetzung für die adäquate Versorgung des Tumors mit Sauerstoff und Nährstoffen und trägt des Weiteren zu dessen Aggressivität bei. Ein weiteres Merkmal vieler solider Tumoren ist das Vorkommen hypoxischer Bereiche und erhöhter NO-Spiegel, die zudem, je nach Konzentration, als proangiogene Faktoren wirken können. Das Hauptziel dieser Arbeit lag in der Untersuchung des Einflusses hypoxischer Bedingungen und des Signalmoleküls NO auf das Sphingolipidgleichgewicht in der humanen Endothelzelllinie EA.hy 926. Ein spezieller Fokus wurde dabei auf die Regulation der S1P synthetisierenden Sphingosinkinasen (SK) und der daraus resultierenden Beeinflussung angiogener Zellantworten gelegt. In dieser Arbeit konnte gezeigt werden, dass sowohl Hypoxie als auch NO die Aktivität der SK-1, jedoch nicht der SK-2, langanhaltend erhöhten. Dieser Aktivitätsanstieg wurde durch eine Aktivierung des SK-1-Promotors mit einer nachfolgenden verstärkten mRNA- und Proteinexpression vermittelt. Dabei war unter Hypoxie der Transkriptionsfaktor HIF-1α der entscheidende SK-1 regulierende Faktor. Zusätzlich führte die durch Hypoxie ausgelöste Hochregulation der SK-1 zu einem Anstieg der zellulären S1P-Spiegel und zu einer Reduktion der Sphingosinkonzentration. Mechanistische Untersuchungen des Effekts von NO auf die SK-1 zeigten, dass dieser unabhängig von erhöhten cGMP-Konzentrationen aufgrund einer Aktivierung der löslichen Guanylatzyklase (sGC) durch NO war. Zum einen hatte die Verwendung des cGMP-Analogons 8-Bromo-cGMP und des Aktivators der sGC YC-1 keinen Einfluss auf die SK-1-Proteinexpression, und zum anderen hatte die Kostimulation mit dem sGC-Inhibitor ODQ keinen hemmenden Effekt auf die durch NO ausgelöste Hochregulation der SK-1. Demgegenüber ist die klassische MAPK-Kaskade essenziell für die Wirkung von NO auf die SK-1, da der MEK-Inhibitor U0126 die erhöhte Proteinexpression der SK-1 verhindern konnte. Die Aktivierung des vorgeschalteten kleinen GTP-bindenden Proteins p21ras ist ein möglicher Mechanismus, über den NO die Aktivierung der MAPKKaskade verursachen könnte (Lander et al, 1995). In einem weiteren Teil der Arbeit wurde die funktionelle Konsequenz einer Regulation der SK-1 durch Hypoxie und NO in EA.hy 926 Zellen untersucht. Sowohl Hypoxie als auch NO wurden als pro-angiogene Faktoren beschrieben. Daher wurde anhand von Migrationsassays und in-vitro-Angiogeneseassays untersucht, ob die SK-1 bei diesen Zellantworten eine Rolle spielt. Die Depletion der SK-1 durch die Verwendung einer spezifischen siRNA oder mit Hilfe von lentiviralen shRNA-Konstrukten zeigte, dass die Hochregulation der SK-1 unter Hypoxie und NO essenziell für die erhöhte Migration der Endothelzellen ist. Zusammenfassend zeigen die Daten, dass hypoxische Bedingungen und NO zu einer Hochregulation der SK-1 in EA.hy 926 Zellen führten und eine erhöhte Migrationsrate dieser Zellen zur Folge hatten. Somit ist die SK-1 ein interessanter therapeutischer Ansatzpunkt zur Behandlung von Krankheiten, die mit einer pathologischen Angiogenese einhergehen, wie es im Tumorgeschehen der Fall ist.
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) shows a remarkable heterogeneity and is recognized as a chemoresistant tumor with dismal prognosis. In previous studies, we observed significant alterations in the serum sphingolipids of patients with HCC. This study aimed to investigate the in vitro effects of sorafenib, which is the most widely used systemic HCC medication, on the sphingolipid pathway as well as the effects of inhibiting the sphingolipid pathway in HCC. Huh7.5 and HepG2 cells were stimulated with sorafenib, and inhibitors of the sphingolipid pathway and cell proliferation, viability, and concentrations of bioactive metabolites were assessed. We observed a significant downregulation of cell proliferation and viability and a simultaneous upregulation of dihydroceramides upon sorafenib stimulation. Interestingly, fumonisin B1 (FB1) and the general sphingosine kinase inhibitor SKI II were able to inhibit cell proliferation more prominently in HepG2 and Huh7.5 cells, whereas there were no consistent effects on the formation of dihydroceramides, thus implying an involvement of distinct metabolic pathways. In conclusion, our study demonstrates a significant downregulation of HCC proliferation upon sorafenib, FB1, and SKI II treatment, whereas it seems they exert antiproliferative effects independently from sphingolipids. Certainly, further data would be required to elucidate the potential of FB1 and SKI II as putative novel therapeutic targets in HCC.
Erythropoietin (Epo) is a crucial hormone regulating red blood cell number and consequently the hematocrit. Epo is mainly produced in the kidney by interstitial fibroblast-like cells. Previously, we have shown that in cultures of the immortalized mouse renal fibroblast-like cell line FAIK F3-5, sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P), by activating S1P1 and S1P3 receptors, can stabilize hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-2α and upregulate Epo mRNA and protein synthesis. In this study, we have addressed the role of intracellular iS1P derived from sphingosine kinases (Sphk) 1 and 2 on Epo synthesis in F3-5 cells and in mouse primary cultures of renal fibroblasts. We show that stable knockdown of Sphk2 in F3-5 cells increases HIF-2α protein and Epo mRNA and protein levels, while Sphk1 knockdown leads to a reduction of hypoxia-stimulated HIF-2α and Epo protein. A similar effect was obtained using primary cultures of renal fibroblasts isolated from wildtype mice, Sphk1−/−, or Sphk2−/− mice. Furthermore, selective Sphk2 inhibitors mimicked the effect of genetic Sphk2 depletion and also upregulated HIF-2α and Epo protein levels. The combined blockade of Sphk1 and Sphk2, using Sphk2−/− renal fibroblasts treated with the Sphk1 inhibitor PF543, resulted in reduced HIF-2α and Epo compared to the untreated Sphk2−/− cells. Exogenous sphingosine (Sph) enhanced HIF-2α and Epo, and this was abolished by the combined treatment with the selective S1P1 and S1P3 antagonists NIBR-0213 and TY52156, suggesting that Sph was taken up by cells and converted to iS1P and exported to then act in an autocrine manner through S1P1 and S1P3. The upregulation of HIF-2α and Epo synthesis by Sphk2 knockdown was confirmed in the human hepatoma cell line Hep3B, which is well-established to upregulate Epo production under hypoxia. In summary, these data show that sphingolipids have diverse effects on Epo synthesis. While accumulation of intracellular Sph reduces Epo synthesis, iS1P will be exported to act through S1P1+3 to enhance Epo synthesis. Furthermore, these data suggest that selective inhibition of Sphk2 is an attractive new option to enhance Epo synthesis and thereby to reduce anemia development in chronic kidney disease.
