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P2X receptors are ligand (ATP)-gated ion channels that open an intrinsic cation permeable pathway in response to extracellular ATP released from both neuronal and non-neuronal cells. P2X receptors are abundantly distributed and mediate a wide variety of physiological functions, ranging from fast synaptic transmission in the central, peripheral, and enteric nervous system, to proinflammatory cytokine release from immune cells. The primary aim of this work was to elucidate the pathway that leads to the finally assembled trimeric P2X receptors, including the assessment of a possible role of ER chaperones and folding factors in this process. Additionally, the study was conducted to investigate the various ER quality control processes involved in the selection of “properly folded and assembled” P2X receptors that are suitable for the surface expression.
P2X receptor subunits assemble in the ER of Xenopus oocytes to homomultimeric or heteromultimeric complexes that appear as ATP-gated cation channels at the cell surface. In this work it was intended to investigate the posttranslational modifications such as N-linked glycosylation and disulfide bond formation that is undergone by P2X1 receptors. In addition, the aim of this study was to examine the expression and the quaternary structure of selected P2X receptor isoforms in Xenopus oocytes. The investigation of the quaternary structure of the metabolically or surface labeled His-P2X2 receptor by BN-PAGE revealed that, while the protein complex is only partially assembling in oocytes, the plasma membrane form of the His-P2X2 receptor assembled into trimeric and even hexameric complex as was shown by the BN-PAGE analysis. Besides this finding, it is shown that the His-P2X5 protein that was purified from metabolically or surface labeled oocytes appeared as one single band corresponding to a trimer when analyzed by BN-PAGE. The present study signified that His-P2X6 alone does not reach a defined assembly status and possibly needs the hetero-polymerisation with other P2X subunits to assemble properly for insertion into the plasma membrane. Another finding of this study is that the P2X1 and P2X2 subunits could exist as heteromultimeric protein complexes in the plasma membrane of cells. Purification of surface expressed His-P2X2 subunit allowed the detection of co-injected P2X1 subunit and vice versa in Xenopus oocytes. Incubation with glutardialdehyde led to the cross-linking of P2X2 and P2X1 subunits to dimers and trimers. BN-PAGE analysis of the P2X2/P2X1 complex isolated under nondenaturing conditions from surface-labeled oocytes yielded one distinct band corresponding to a trimeric complex. The analysis of a C-terminally GFP tagged His-P2X1 fusion protein by confocal fluorescence microscopy revealed small clusters of the protein complexes, approximately 4-6 µm in diameter from a diffuse distribution of the protein in the plasma membranes of Xenopus oocytes. The cross-linking or BN-PAGE analysis of the fusion protein resulted in proteins that migrated quantitatively as trimers when purified in digitonin. The analysis of some chimeric constructs confirmed the results of others, which showed that desensitization can be removed from the P2X1 or P2X3 receptor by providing the N-domain from the P2X2 receptor (Werner et al., 1996) The exchange of this domain did not alter the quaternary structure of the chimeras, which showed to be present as trimers when expressed in oocytes. In addition, glycan minus mutants of His-P2X1 receptor were analyzed to examine whether carbohydrate side chains are important for P2X1 subunit assembly, surface expression, or ligand recognition. SDS-PAGE analysis of glycan minus mutants carrying Q instead of N at five individual NXT/S sequons reveals that 284N remains unused because of a proline in the 4 position. The four other sites (153Asn, 184N, 210N, and 300N) carry N-glycans, but solely 300N acquires complex-type carbohydrates. Like parent P2X1 receptor, glycan minus mutants migrate as homotrimers when resolved by blue native PAGE. Recording of ATP-gated currents revealed that elimination of 153N or 210N diminishes or increases functional expression levels, respectively. In addition, elimination of 210N causes a 3-fold reduction of the potency for ATP. If three or all four N-glycosylation sites are simultaneously eliminated, formation of P2X1 receptors is severely impaired or abolished, respectively. It is concluded that at least one N-glycan per subunit of either position is absolutely required for the formation of P2X1 receptors. The SDS-PAGE analysis of surface-labeled His-P2X2 and His-P2X5 receptors revealed that, while the His-P2X2 subunit acquires three complex-type carbohydrates, in case of His-P2X5 polypeptide, only two of the three N-glycans could obtain complex-type carbohydrates during transit of the Golgi apparatus. Furthermore, it was shown that DTT treatment blocked the appearance of newly made His-P2X1 at the plasma membranes of Xenopus oocytes. Also, it was revealed that the effects of DTT on His-P2X1 biogenesis are fully reversible. Removal of the reducing agent leads to subsequent folding and assembly into His-P2X1 receptor complex, followed by transport to the cell surface. The characterization of cysteine minus mutants by SDS PAGE and BN-PAGE demonstrated that, the cysteine substitution in the first cysteine rich domain (C1 - C6) does not have a major effect on assembly for the mutant receptors. In contrast, the replacement of the four cysteine residues (C7 - C10) from the second cysteine rich domain demonstrate a critical importance of this domain for the functional surface expression of P2X1 receptor. The investigations of several double cysteine mutants revealed that according to a similarity in the sensitivity to ATP, the C1 and C6, as well as C2 and C4 and finally C3 and C5 are pairs forming two disulfide bonds in each P2X1 subunit.
P2X-Rezeptoren sind ligandengesteuerte Kationenkanäle, die durch extrazelluläres ATP aktiviert werden. Bisher wurden sieben Isoformen kloniert (P2X1-P2X7), die eine gemeinsame Topologie besitzen, bestehend aus intrazellulären N- und C-Termini, zwei Transmembranregionen und einer großen Ektodomäne. Um funktionelle Ionenkanäle ausbilden zu können, müssen P2X-Untereinheiten in Homo- oder Heterotrimere assemblieren. Das übergeordnete Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war das Identifizieren von Proteindomänen, die zu der Trimerisierung von P2X-Untereinheiten beitragen. Hierzu diente in erster Linie die humane P2X5- (hP2X5-) Untereinheit, der durch Herausspleißen von Exon 10 eine Region fehlt, die in der Literatur als eventuell wichtig für die Assemblierung beschrieben wird. Exon 10 kodiert 22 Aminosäuren, die in der distalen Ektodomäne und der äußeren Hälfte der zweiten Transmembranregion liegen. Das Fehlen dieser Aminosäuren führt zu Untereinheiten, die nicht in der Lage sind, zu trimerisieren und funktionelle Ionenkanäle auszubilden. Durch das schrittweise Einsetzen der von Exon 10 kodierten Aminosäuren in die hP2X5-Untereinheit sowie die Expression verschiedener Alanin-Mutanten mit nachfolgender Analyse durch Blaue-Native-PAGE konnte gezeigt werden, dass das fehlerhafte Assemblierungsverhalten der hP2X5-Untereinheit in erster Linie durch das Fehlen der äußeren Hälfte der zweiten Transmembranregion bewirkt wird. Zusätzliche gezielte Mutationen und die Konstruktion von Deletionsmutanten ergaben weiterhin, dass die zweite Transmembranregion vornehmlich als hydrophober Membrananker dient, um die korrekte Topologie und Positionierung von Assemblierungsdomänen zu gewährleisten. Die wichtigsten Assemblierungs-informationen scheinen in der Ektodomäne zu liegen. Die einzige Aminosäure in der zweiten Transmembranregion, die einen spezifischen Einfluss auf die Trimerisierung von hP2X5-Untereinheiten hatte, war 355D. Einzelmutationen in dieser Position zeigten, dass nur Aminosäuren, deren Seitenketten in der Membran interhelikale Wasserstoffbrücken ausbilden können, eine effiziente Trimerisierung ermöglichen. Dieses Ergebnis legte den Schluss nahe, dass 355D die Assemblierung unterstützt, indem es die Interaktion zwischen den Untereinheiten über eine Wasserstoffbrückenbildung stabilisiert. Die Suche nach einem potentiellen Interaktionspartner von 355D in der ersten Transmembranregion durch Einzelmutationen und Cystein-Crosslinking war allerdings nicht erfolgreich. Dies könnte bedeuten, dass die beiden Transmembranregionen jeweils benachbarter Untereinheiten nicht, wie für P2X2-Untereinheiten gezeigt, in einer „head to tail“-Orientierung angeordnet sind, sondern nur die zweiten Transmembranregionen miteinander in Kontakt stehen. Limitierte Proteolyse von hP2X5-Rezeptormutanten ergab einen engen Zusammenhang zwischen der Trimerisierung und der Resistenz gegenüber einer Proteolyse durch Trypsin. Daraus folgt, dass trimerisierungsfähige P2X-Mutanten korrekt gefaltet sind, während ein Verlust der Trimerisierungsfähigkeit eine Fehlfaltung anzeigt. Neben dem hP2X5-Rezeptor wurden auch Ratten-P2X1- (rP2X1-) Rezeptoren untersucht. rP2X1-Konstrukte, die lediglich aus der Ektodomäne sowie einem abspaltbaren Signalpeptid bestanden, konnten zwar partiell multimerisieren, aber keine definierten Trimere bilden. Die Analyse weiterer Konstrukte zeigte, dass beide Transmembranregionen für die Trimerisierung wichtig sind, auch wenn sie keine spezifischen Assemblierungsinformationen enthalten. Ein systematisches Alanin-Scanning der gesamten Ektodomäne der rP2X1-Untereinheit ergab, dass die Ektodomäne multiple Sequenzmotive enthält, die zu der Trimerisierung beitragen. Die genaue Rolle der identifizierten Sequenzmotive muss in weiteren Experimenten geklärt werden. Zusätzlich wurden Chimären aus rP2X1- und Ratten-P2X6- (rP2X6-) Untereinheiten untersucht. Da rP2X6-Untereinheiten nicht in der Lage sind zu trimerisieren, könnten sie in Kombination mit Sequenzelementen aus rP2X1-Untereinheiten ermöglichen, trimerisierungsrelevante Proteindomänen zu identifizieren. Es zeigte sich, dass eine Chimäre, die die Ektodomäne der rP2X1-Untereinheit und die Transmembranregionen und zytosolischen Domänen der rP2X6-Untereinheit enthielt, trimerisieren konnte, während die umgekehrte Chimäre dies nicht vermochte. Dies war ein weiterer Hinweis darauf, dass die Motive, die für die Trimerisierung von P2X-Untereinheiten essentiell sind, in der Ektodomäne liegen. Zusammenfassend belegen diese Ergebnisse, dass die Transmembranregionen bei der Assemblierung im Wesentlichen eine Funktion als hydrophobe Membrananker haben, die die korrekte Topologie und Positionierung der extrazellulären Assemblierungsdomänen ermöglichen. Die initiale Assemblierung wird durch die Ausbildung einer interhelikalen Wasserstoffbrücke über 355D stabilisiert. Somit können die wichtigsten Assemblierungsdomänen in Kontakt treten, die in der Ektodomäne lokalisiert sind.
The results presented here strongly indicate that ubiquitination of the recombinant human alpha1 GlyR at the plasma membrane of Xenopus oocytes is involved in receptor internalisation and degradation. Ubiquitination of the human alpha1 GlyR has been demonstrated by radio-iodination of plasma membrane-boundalpha1 GlyRs, whose subunits differed in molecular weight by additional 7, 14 or 21 kDa, corresponding to the molecular weights of one, two and three conjugated ubiquitin molecules, respectively, and by co-isolation of the non-tagged human alpha1 GlyR through hexahistidyl-tagged ubiquitin. Ubiquitin conjugated GlyRs where prominent at the plasma membrane, but could be hardly detected in total cell homogenates, indicating that ubiquitination takes place exclusively at the plasma membrane. Ubiquitination of the alpha1 GlyR at the plasma membrane was no longer detectable when the ten lysine residues of the cytoplasmic loop between transmembrane segments M3 and M4 were replaced by arginines. Despite this proteolytic cleavage continued to take place at the same extent as with the wild type alpha1 GlyR, suggesting that removal of GlyRs from the plasma membrane and routing to lysosomes for degradation were not dependent on ubiquitination. Also replacing a tyrosine in position 339, which was speculated to be part of an additional endocytosis motif, did not lead to a significant reduction of cleavage of the GlyR alpha1 subunits. However, a mutant lacking both, ubiquitination sites and 339Y, was significantly less processed. These results may suggest that the GlyR alpha1 subunit harbors at least two endocytosis motifs, which may act independently to regulate the density of alpha1 GlyR. Apparently, each of the two signals may be capable of compensating entirely the loss of the other. Part two of this Dissertation demonstrates that the correct topology of the glycine receptor alpha1 subunit depends critically on six positively charged residues within a basic cluster, RFRRKRR, located in the large cytoplasmic loop following the C-terminal end of M3. Neutralization of one or more charges of this cluster, but not of other charged residues in the M3-M4 loop, led to an aberrant translocation into the endoplasmic reticulum lumen of the M3-M4 loop. However, when two of the three basic charges located in the ectodomain linking M2 and M3 were neutralized, in addition to two charges of the basic cluster, endoplasmic reticulum disposition of the M3-M4 loop was prevented. We conclude that a high density of basic residues C-terminal to M3 is required to compensate for the presence of positively charged residues in the M2-M3 ectodomain, which otherwise impair correct membrane integration of the M3 segment. Part three of this Dissertation describes my contribution (blue native PAGE analysis of metabolically labeled alpha7 and 5HT3A receptors and the examination of the glycosylation state of metabolically labeled alpha7 subunits) to a work on the limited assembly capacity of Xenopus oocytes for nicotinic alpha7 subunits. While 5HT3A subunits combined efficiently to pentamers, alpha7 subunits existed in various assembly states including trimers, tetramers, pentamers, and aggregates. Only alpha7 subunits that completed the assembly process to homopentamers acquired complex-type carbohydrates and appeared at the cell surface. We conclude that Xenopus oocytes have a limited capacity to guide the assembly of alpha7 subunits, but not 5HT3A subunits to homopentamers. Accordingly, ER retention of imperfectly assembled alpha7 subunits rather than inefficient routing of fully assembled alpha7 receptors to the cell surface limits surface expression levels of alpha7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. Part four of this Dissertation describes my contribution (the biochemical analysis of the human P2X2 and P2X6 subtypes) to studies on the quaternary structure of P2X receptors. Armaz Aschrafi, the main author of the paper showed that subsequent to isolation under non-denaturing conditions from Xenopus oocytes the His-rP2X2 protein migrated on blue native PAGE predominantly in an aggregated form. The only discrete protein band detectable could be assigned to homotrimers of the His-rP2X2 subunit. Because of the exceptional assembly-behaviour of the rP2X2 protein compared to the rP2X1, rP2X3, rP2X4 and rP2X5 proteins, its human orthologue was investigated in the same manner. In contrast to rP2X2 subunits, hP2X2 subunits migrated under virtually identical conditions in a single defined assembly state, which could be clearly assigned to a trimer. P2X6 subunits represent the sole P2X subtype that is unable to form functional homomeric receptors in Xenopus oocytes. The blue native PAGE analysis of metabolically labeled hP2X6 receptors and the examination of the glycosylation state revealed that hP2X6 subunits form tetramers and aggregates that are not exported to the plasma membrane of Xenopus oocytes.
