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Der neoproterozoische Faltengürtel Kameruns (NFBC) ist durch Zahlreiche Pan- Afrikanische Plutone charakterisiert, die von krustalen Scherzonen durchsetzt werden. Der NFBC resultiert aus der Konvergenz des Westafrikanischen und des Kongo/Saõ-Francisco Kratons. Die Borborema Provinz (BOP) in NE-Brasilien wird als Äquivalent des NFBC angesehen. Bisher vorliegende Daten legen nahe dass die Borborema Scherzonen in kontinentaler Kruste durch dextrale Extrusion der BOP enstanden sind. Letztere wurde durch differentielle Bewegungen (Rotation induziert durch Subduktion und Kollision) des Kongo/Saõ- Francisco und des Westafrika-Kratons ausgelöst. Die Aktivität der Scherzonen fällt mit einer Hochtemperatur-Mittel- bis Niederdruckmetamorphose zusammen, welche mit partieller Aufschmelzung und Intrusion krustaler sowie Mantelschmelzen einhergeht. Die Bewegungen entlang dieser Scherzonen begannen zwischen 590 und 570 Ma und hielten bei abnehmender Temperatur bis etwa 500 Ma an. Ob die Scherzonen der BOP tatsächlich in den NFBC hineinreichen, war bisher nicht eindeutig geklärt. Die tektonometamorphe und magmatische Entwicklung des NFBC ist aufgrund fehlender struktureller, petrologischer und geochronologischer Daten kaum verstanden. Die vorliegende Arbeit befasst sich mit der Platznahme und Deformation der Plutone im Bereich des westlichen NFBC in der Region von Bafoussam-Batcha. Es wurden strukturelle Untersuchungen sowie U-(Th)-Pb Datierungen von Zirkon und Monazit durchgeführt. Die gewonnenen Daten werden mit bisher vorliegenden Daten aus den benachbarten Arealen des NFBC und aus äquivalenten Arealen Brasiliens verglichen. Innerhalb des NFBC lassen sich drei wesentliche proterozoische Gesteinseinheiten unterscheiden: (1) hoch-gradige metamorphe Komplexe mit palaeoproterozoischem Alter (Eburnium), bestehend aus Metasedimenten und Metaplutoniten, welche im Pan-Afrikanischen Granit-Batholith von Zentral-Kamerun vorkommen (in der Region von Bafia und Adamaoua); (2) einen Schiefer-Gürtel neoproterozoischen Alters, der die Becken von Poli, Lom und Yaoundé beinhaltet, und (3) Pan-Afrikanische (Meta-)Granitoide. Untersuchungen im nördlichen (Region von Poli), südlichen (Region von Yaoundé) und östlichen (Region von Lom-Ngaoundere) zeigen, dass die geodynamische Entwicklung durch Überschiebungs und Blatterverschiebungstektonik charakterisiert ist. Im nördlichen NFBC existieren E-W streichende, flach einfallende Foliationen, welche während der Überschiebung des NFBC auf den Kongo-Kraton entstanden. Im westlichen NFBC existieren vor allem geochemische und petrologische Daten. Die regionale Geologie wird hier durch Pan-Afrikanisches grundgebirge bestimmt, welches aus Graniten und Metamorphiten besteht, die wiederum von känozoischen Magmatiten (Granite, Vulkanite) durchsetzt bzw. überlagert werden. Vorhandene Daten zu Pan-Afrikanischen Plutonen des Untersuchungsgebiets und angrenzenden Regionen zeigen, dass in vielen Regionen ein große Variabilität hinsichtlich des Gesteinschemismus vorliegt, welche von basischen bis hin zu granitischen Gesteinen reicht, wobei der geochemische Charakter i.d.R. kalkalkalin bis alkalin ist. Das initiale Strontium-Verhältnis und Sm-Nd Daten einiger Granite indizieren eine Aufschmelzung im Mantel bei anschließender Kontamination durch kontinentale Kruste. Aufgrund der Anfälligkeit der Rb-Sr Methode existieren kaum verlässliche Alter von Granitoiden des NFBC. Durch die großen Fehler der Rb-Sr Alter sind neben den Platznahmealtern auch die Zeitpunkte der vorhandenen Wiederaufschmelzung weit gehend unbekannt. Durch detaillierte Geländearbeit gelang eine Gliederung des Areals in verschiedene Teilkomplexe. Diese sind der Migmatit-Komplex von Foumbot (MCF), der Bangwa-Komplex (BC), der Komplex von Chepang (CC) und der jüngeren Batié-Pluton (BP), welcher die übrigen Komplexe diskordant durchschlägt. Der BP selbst wird vom känozoischen Batcha Pluton durchsetzt. Innerhalb des MCF existiert eine bedeutende ENE-WSW streichende Scherzone. Im zentralen und südlichen Arbeitsgebiet reichen NE-SW streichende Scherzonen in den BP sowie in den CC und den BC hinein. Der MCF besteht aus Diatexit, Metatexit und Amphibolit. Merkmale wie Scherfaltung älterer Gefüge entlang ENE-WSW streichender Scherflächen und progressive Leukosombildung im Bereich der Faltenscharniere machen deutlich, dass partielle Aufschmelzung mit zunehmender Deformation einhergeht. Bereiche mit hoher Strain-magnitude zeigen koaxiale Plättung an. Die ENE-WSW verlaufende Scherzone weist dextrale Kinematik auf, wobei ältere sinistrale Bewegungen nicht ausgeschlossen werden können. Einzelzirkone von Diatexiten der MCF wurden mittels LA-ICPMS datiert. Mindestens drei Altersdomänen wurden dabei identifiziert: (a) elongierte bis gerundete Zirkon-Kerne mit Altern um 671 ±6 Ma; (b) oszillierend zonierte Zirkon-Mäntel, wahrscheinlich magmatischen Ursprungs, mit einem Alter von 639 ±5 Ma, interpretiert als das Intrusionsalter des Diatexits; (c) rekristallisierte Zirkon-Ränder mit einem Alter von 597 ±6 Ma, welches vermutlich die Metamorphose und Anatexis datiert. Der BC setzt sich aus unterschiedlich stark deformiertem Quarz-Diorit, Granodiorit, Syenogranit, Leucogranit und Monzonit zusammen. Quarz-Diorit und Granodiorit erscheinen in Form von cm- bis m-mächtigen foliierten Körpern. Die Foliation ist im Osten subhorizontal, gen Westen aber fällt sie zunehmend steil nach NE ein. Syenogranit und Leukogranit bilden größere Körper und weisen eine steile, nach NE einfallende, submagmatische Foliation auf. Innerhalb der (Syeno)granite weisen kristallplastische Verformung und Rekristallisation von Feldspat sowie vorhandene S-C Gefüge auf eine Deformation im Subsolidusbereich, d.h. während der Abkühlung, hin. Die aus den Mikrogefügen abgeleiteten Deformationsmechanismen charakteristischer Minerale der Quarz-Diorite und Granodiorite deuten hingegen auf Verformung unter Bedingungen einer hoch- und niedriggradigen Metamorphose hin. Innerhalb NE-SW verlaufender Mylonite am Kontakt BC/BP wird ein dextraler Schersinn durch S-C Gefüge angezeigt. In den zentralen Bereichen des BC sind Überprägungen sinistraler durch dextrale Scherzonen hingegen nur lokal sichtbar. Die Phengit-Zusammensetzung deformierter Gesteine deutet auf Scherung bei einem Maximaldruck von ca. 4.5 kbar bei T = ca. 500 °C hin. Die östlichen Nebengesteine des BC in der Region von Maham sind Migmatite, deren subhorizontale Foliation in zunehmendem Maße in wenige cm bis einige m mächtige ENE-WSW streichende Scherzonen übergeht. Die Gefüge der Migmatite der Region von Maham und (grano)dioritischer Gesteine des BC deuten auf eine regionale Überschiebungstektonik mit SSE gerichtetem Deckentransport hin. Die Zirkon- und Monazitalter deuten auf zwei Altersgruppen innerhalb des BC hin mit jeweils unterschiedlichen Platznahmealtern. Die ältere Gruppe besteht aus Quarzdiorit (643 ±5 Ma und 641 ±4 Ma, LA-ICPMS Daten, U-Pb Zirkonalter) und Granodiorit (638 ±2 Ma, IDTIMS Daten; 641 ±8 Ma und 641 ±2 Ma, LA-ICPMS Daten; U-Pb Zirkonalter), die jüngere Gruppe umfasst Syenogranit (598 ±21 Ma, 605 ±11 Ma, EMP Daten, U-Th-Pb Monazitalter) und Leukogranit (607 ±3 Ma und 603 ±4 Ma, LA-ICPMS Daten; U-Pb Zirkonalter). 206Pb/238U Alter zwischen 656 ±9 Ma und 718 ±13 Ma wurden an Zirkonkernen des Granodiorits bestimmt. Eine Regressionsgerade durch alle analysierten Kerne ergibt ein oberes Schnittpunktalter von 672 ±8 Ma. Der CC wird von im m-Maßstab wechselnden Lagen dioritischer und granitischer Zusammensetzung aufgebaut. Eine mylonitische Foliation streicht NE-SW. S-L-gefüge und Quarz-[c]-Achsen Verteilungen weisen auf Plättung unter hochgradigen Bedingungen (T = 650 °C) hin. Phengit-Barometrie mylonitisierter Granite ergibt einen Maximaldruck von 6 kbar bei T = ca. 500°C. Radiometrische Untersuchungen des mylonitischen Granits des CC wurden mittels LAICPMS an Zirkon und Monazit sowie mit Elektronenstrahlmikrosonde (EMP) an Monazit durchgeführt. Das EMP Monazit Alter (621 ±33 Ma) und LA-ICPMS Alter (622 ±13, oberes Schnittpunktalter; 611 ±4 und 608 ±6 Ma, gewichtete Mittelwerte der 208Pb/232Th und 207Pb/238U Alter) stehen im Einklang mit dem konkordanten LA-ICPMS Zirkonalter (611 ±5 Ma). Letzteres wird als Intrusionsalter des Granits interpretiert. Der BP wird im Wesentlichen von mittel- bis grobkörnigem Syenogranit aufgebaut. Speziell im Randbereich werden magmatische Gefüge (Fließgefüge, Aggregate von xenomorphem Quarz) durch submagmatische Gefüge überprägt und schließlich ersetzt (kristallplastische Deformation und Rekristallisation von Quarz und Feldspat, Bildung von Myrmekiten und S-C Gefügen). Sowohl die vom magmatischen bis in das Subsolidus-Stadium anhaltende Deformation, als auch die Parallelität der steil einfallenden postmagmatischen Foliation im Randbereich des BP und den angrenzenden BC, CC und MCF weisen auf eine synkinematische Platznahme des BP entlang krustaler Blattverschiebungen hin. Ein Konkordiaalter von 602 ±1.4 Ma wurde mit der ID-TIMS Methode erhalten. Mittels LAICPMS wurde ein Alter von 599 ±13 Ma (oberes Schnittpunktalter) bestimmt, welches im Fehler dem ID-TIMS Konkordia-Alter gleicht. Letzteres wird als Platznahmealter interpretiert. Die Kombination geochronologischer und struktureller Daten erlaubt die Unterscheidung von insgesamt drei tektono-magmatischen Abschnitten: Phase I ist durch die Platznahme dioritischer und granodioritischer Gesteine des BC sowie der Protolithe der Migmatite des MCF bei etwa 640 Ma charakterisiert. Während Phase II bei ca. 607 Ma intrudierten Syenogranit und Leukogranite in den BC und der Granits des CC. Gleichzeitig unterlagen die 640 Ma alten Granite einer hochgradigen Metamorphose. Die Intrusion der 607 Ma alten Plutonite geht einher mit einem Wechsel von Überschiebungstektonik hin zu sinistraler Blatterverschiebungstektonik. Die Platznahme des porphyritischen Syenogranits von Batié vor ca. 600 Ma, welche dextrale Bewegungen im Randbereich des BP und unmittelbar angrenzender Nebengesteine auslöste, stellt die dritte tektono-magmatische Phase dar. Alter von 700 bis 660 Ma, bestimmt an Zirkonkernen der Migmatite des MCF und der Granodiorite des BC, indizieren eine Platznahme der ältesten Granite in Pan-Afrikanischem Basement. Einige ererbte Zirkonkerne paläoproterozoischen Alters innerhalb des Leukogranits des BC deuten auf die Beteiligung Eburnischer Kruste in der Entwicklung der Pan-Afrikanischen Granite hin. Die neuen Daten bestätigen bisherige Vermutungen, dass der westliche NFBC ein afrikanisches Äquivalent zur Borborema Provinz Brasiliens darstellt. Auffällig sind geochronologische Übereinstimmungen bei den (Meta)granitoiden und den prä- bis synkinematischen Brasiliano Granitoiden der Borborema Provinz. Auf der anderen Seite ist speziell in der späten Entwicklung ab ca. 600 Ma die Kinematik blattverschiebender Bewegungen teilweise unterschiedlich. Eine mögliche Ursache sind lokale Variationen im Stressfeld, bedingt durch die Platznahme der syn- bis spät-tektonischen Magmatite.
The Alborz Mountains are forming a ~100 km wide, E-W trending mountain chain where individual summits are up to 5000 m in elevation. The Alborz Mountains range are part of the Alpine orogen and are straddling a 2000 km wide area S of the Caspian Sea. The rocks of the Alborz Mountains consist of Neogen sediments, which are affected by folding and faulting. In the western part of the Alborz Mountains the folds and faults are trending NW-SE, whereas in the eastern part they are trending NE-SW. GPS data confirm N-S shortening including dextral strike-slip along ESE-WNW trending faults, and sinistral strike-slip along ENE-WSW trending faults. The present thesis is focusing on the active Garmsar salt nappe, the fragmented roof of which is pierced by rock salt which extruded near the front of the Alborz Mountains Range. During the past 5 m.y. the front of the Alborz chain migrated towards SSW on top of the salt of the Garmsar basin. The salt was squeezed towards SSW and took place at the Great Kavir. The extruded salt is forming the Eyvanekey plateau between the cities of Eyvanekey and Garmsar. Both the Garmsar salt nappe and the Eyvanekey plateau are dextrally displaced for ca. 9 km along the Zirab-Garmsar fault. Structural analyses of the Garmsar salt nappe indicate three different groups of joints which are trending perpendicular and parallel to the local mechanical anisotropy. The folds of the study area are congruent (type 2 and 3 after Ramsay) resulting from viscose inhomogeneous flow. InSAR-Investigations suggest the Alborz Mountains to be lifted up by ca. 1 cm/a, while horizontal shortening is active at a rate of 8 ±2 mm/a. These values are consistent with GPS data. Based on nine „Advanced Synthetic Aperture Radar“ (ASAR) scenarios, produced by the ENVISAT satellite of the European space agency between 2003 and 2006, we used interferograms to map the displacement via 22 increments during 2 – 18 months. The results suggest that the topographic height of the surface of the salt is changing at a rate which is controlled by the season. The displacement ranges from subsidence at -40 to -50 mm/a to uplift of 20 mm/a. In order to investigate the time-dependent deformation with high spatial resolution, we used algorithms which are based on data of small base lines (SBAS). The resulting interferometric SAR time series analyses also suggest that the study area is largely subsiding at a rate that is controlled by the seasons. The map with the averaged LOS deformation velocities, on the other hand, suggests the subsidence to increase from the upper part of the salt nappe towards deeper topographic 5 levels of the agricultural lowlands. The major part of subsidence is probably caused by the annual rainfall which results in subrosion of salt. The spatial changes in the subsidence rate are probably controlled by the distribution of fountains, mining activity at the margin of the salt glacier, and faults and fractures inside the salt. Striking seasonal imprints are obvious along the agricultural areas which are surrounding the Garmsar salt nappe. These areas are rapidly subsiding in summer and spring when groundwater is used for irrigations. The maximum rate of subsidence (40-50 mm/a) is located E and W of the Eyvanekey plateau, where large areas are irrigated. The maximum displacement is 20 mm/a in the farmland and 5 mm/a in the center of the salt nappe. Depth estimates using Euler deconvolution method for gravimetric and magnetic data suggest the salt to extrude from a depth less than ca. 2000 m. The gravity field of the study area is characterized by strong anomalies in the SW and weak anomalies in the NE. A considerable negative anomaly in the N indicates that the northern part subsided, whereas the southern part was lifted up. The seismic data show three major horizons inside the Miocene sediments: the Lower Red Formation, the Qom Formation, and the Upper Red Formation. The western part of the study area seems to be free from salt domes. The layers of the upper part of the Qom Formation show thinning along the NE and NW trending faults. In some areas the seismic reflectors indicate steep faults close the saddle of the folds. NE-SW-, NW-SE and E-Wtrending faults prevail. Analogue experiments have been carried out to extend our knowledge about the evolution of the Garmsar salt dome. We used a scaled model (34 cm * 25 cm * 2.5 cm) that was shortened perpendicular to its long side. The wedge shape of the Alborz Mountains was simulated by a wedge consisting of Styrofoam. Rock salt was simulated using Polydimethylsiloxan (PDMS), a linear viscous material with a viscosity of 2.3*104 Pa s and a density of 0.96 g/cm3 at room temperature. Other sediments were modeled using dry quartz sand. The experimental results can be used to simulate the structural evolution of the study area: The Alborz deformation front was emplaced on top of the salt rocks in the Garmsar area while migrating towards SSW. A salt basin and a salt extrusion have also been produced in the model. Cross sections through the wedge shaped analogue model indicate N- and S-dipping reverse faults, which are in line with the wedge shape of the Alborz chain. Moreover, ENE-WSW trending sinistral and ESE-WNW trending dextral strike-slip faults led to N-S shortening during the Miocene. Structural marker horizons, 6 which have been turned into Z-folds on the western fold limbs and to S-folds on the eastern fold limbs, are comparable with the folds of the study area. Solving the problem of waste is one of the central tasks of environmental protection. It is becoming increasingly difficult to find suitable sites that are acceptable to the public. Salt and salt formations have relevant properties to be utilizing as a repository for each kind of waste. The favorable properties make rock salt highly suitable as a host rock, in particular for nonradioactive and radioactive wastes. The Qom and Garmsar basins are the nearest salt diapirs to the Tehran province, and there are suitable repositories for waste disposal. Based on surface and subsurface data, the Garmsar salt diapir has been investigated as a case example for its suitability as a host and repository for various types of waste. The data used are based on field studies, interferometry, and geophysical investigations. The results of this study suggest the deep bedded salt of the Garmsar Salt Basin to be an appropriate host for the deposition of industrial waste. Rock salt of surficial layers or domes, on the other hand, is not regarded as an appropriate candidate for waste disposal.
This thesis presents microstructural investigations of rock salt from the central part of the Gorleben salt dome (Northern Germany). The main emphasis was to characterize the rock salt microfabrics, to identify operating deformation mechanisms in halite and anhydrite and to decipher the macro- and microstructural distribution of hydrocarbons, which have been encountered during the underground exploration of the salt dome. The microfabrics of the Knäuel- and the Streifensalz formation indicate that strain-induced grain boundary migration has been active during deformation of halite. Crystal plastic deformation of halite is further documented by lattice bending, subgrain formation and minor subgrain rotation. Evidence for pressure solution of halite has not been found, but cannot be excluded because of the small grain size, the lack of LPO and the low differential stress (1.1 - 1.3 MPa) as deduced from subgrain-size piezometry. Solution precipitation creep was proven for intercalated anhydrite layers and clusters, which have been deformed in the brittle-ductile regime. Brittle deformation of anhydrite in terms of boudinage and fracturing was counteracted by viscous creep of halite which caused a re-sealing of fractures and a reestablishing of the characteristic sealing capacity of rock salt. Hydrocarbons are mainly located along cross cut 1 West of the Gorleben exploration mine and are heterogeneously distributed in the rock salt. They are incorporated in the rock salt foliation in the form of streaks, dispersed clouds, clusters and isolated patches. On the micro-scale, hydrocarbons are trapped along grain boundaries of halite and/or anhydrite, in micro-capillary tubes of anhydrite and in pore space of the rare rock salt with elevated porosity (< 1.26 vol.-%). Such elevated porosities correlate with elevated hydrocarbon concentrations of several hundred ppm. The overall concentrations of hydrocarbons, however, are very low (< 0.05 wt.-%). Elevated porosity is depicted to be a remnant originating from an early stage of salt uplift when fluid and hydrocarbons have migrated and spread from the Staßfurt Karbonat (z2SK) into the superjacent Gorleben Hauptsalz. During halokinesis and the strong reworking of the salt body hydrocarbons have been redistributed and dismembered resulting in the isolated present-day occurrences. The distribution of hydrocarbons shows no relation to local variations in the rock salt fabric. The microstructures of hydrocarbon-bearing and hydrocarbon-free Gorleben rock salt are not distinguishable from each other. Likewise, the presence of hydrocarbons should not have influenced the mechanical behavior or the rock salt as indicated by the microfabrics studied and by geomechanical data. The pure amounts of hydrocarbons are too low for any detectable impact on the barrier properties of this part of rock salt. Although hydrocarbons have migrated into the Gorleben Hauptsalz during an early stage of salt uplift when the sealing capacity of rock salt was diminished, the major implication of their isolated distribution patterns is that the Gorleben rock salt was able to regain its sealing capacity during subsequent deformation and re-equilibration. Former migration pathways for fluid and hydrocarbons have been healed and do not exist anymore. The application of X-ray computed tomography (CT) allows the 3D visualization and quantification of anhydrite, pore space and fluid phases located along grain-boundaries or trapped as intracrystalline inclusions. The 3D reconstruction of anhydrite clusters and pore space for the same sample reveals different spatial distribution patterns. This fact implies that anhydrite is not responsible for such elevated pore space in the rock salt studied, which has been largely closed during the polyphase deformation history of the Gorleben salt dome. High-resolution nanoCT scans (≤ 1 μm voxel size) of single intra- and intercrystalline fluid inclusions in rock salt enable a characterization of gaseous, solid and liquid phases inside single fluid inclusions and give exact information on morphology and shape. The 3D reconstruction of grain boundary fluid inclusions allows the amount, volumes, surface areas or diameters of various types to be determined. Non-destructive X-ray CT imaging is presented as very useful tool to characterize the structural inventory of rock salt. This non-destructive technique offers new perspectives for microstructural studies and for a wide range of research in structural geology, in general.
The present PhD thesis comprises structural geology, petrographic and geochronological investiga-tions on crystalline rocks of the Uppermost Unit in the southern Aegean realm. Studies were carried out in three areas: (1) on the island of Anafi, (2) in the area west of Melambes in central Crete and (3) between the villages of Pefkos, Kalami and Sykologos in the municipality of Viannos in eastern Crete.
The Uppermost Unit forms together with the underlying, non-metamorphic Pindos Unit the upper nappe system of the Cretan nappe pile that, unlike the units of the lower nappe system, was not affected by Late Oligocene to Early Miocene subduction-related metamorphism. The upper nappe system must therefore have been at upper levels of the lithosphere in the Late Oligocene. This is of particular im-portance when reconstructing the tectonometamorphic evolution of the Uppermost Unit. The Upper-most Unit is very heterogeneous in composition and is subdivided into several subunits, which differ mainly in their lithological composition and the degree of metamorphic overprint. Usually, it is subdi-vided into several low-grade metamorphic subunits and one high-grade metamorphic subunit. Within the scope of this PhD thesis, three of these subunits were examined; (1) the anchimetamorphic Arvi Unit, (2) the newly described Greenschist Unit and (3) the Asterousia Crystalline Complex (ACC).
The analyses conducted during this PhD thesis include: (1) structural geology investigations in the field, (2) microstructural and petrographic analyses on thin sections, (3) radiometric dating of zircons using isotope dilution thermal ionisation mass spectrometry (ID-TIMS) and laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS), (4) electron microprobe (EMP) analysis, (5) quartz texture analysis using electron-backscattered diffraction (EBSD), (6) semiquantitative analysis of min-eral phases using X-ray powder diffraction (XRD), (7) analysis of the modal composition of intrusive rocks applying point counting on thin sections and (8) X-ray microtomography (micro-CT) on chias-tolite hornfels.
...
Upper mantle shear zones are complex systems where deformation is commonly closely interacting with metamorphic (solid-solid) and/or melt/fluid-rock reactions. Here, feedback processes between deformation, reactions, grain size reduction and phase mixing result in strain weakening and the localization of deformation. The expression of these interlinked processes is portrayed by the microfabrics of strained peridotites and pyroxenites. The present thesis is focusing on these processes and their impact on the deformation in three upper mantle shear zones situated in the peridotite massifs of Lanzo (Italian Alps), Erro-Tobbio (Italian Alps) and Ronda (Betic Cordillera, Spain). In all three shear zones, the presence of melt led to phase mixing either by interstitial crystallization of pyroxenes from a Si-saturated and partially also highly evolved melt or by melt-rock reactions of pyroxene porphyroclasts with a Si-undersaturated melt. The effect of melt on the localization of strain is twofold and variable. Enhanced deformation by melt-wetted boundaries is assumed for all shear zones. Additionally, phase mixing by crystallization of interstitial pyroxenes or melt-rock reactions reduce or maintain the grain size by the formation of fine grained neoblasts and secondary phase boundary pinning. In this regard, pre- to early syn-kinematic, map-scale percolation of OH-bearing, evolved melts in the NW Ronda peridotite massif and the associated crystallization of interstitial pyroxenes result in the activation of grain size sensitive deformation mechanisms in the entire melt-effected area. In the rocks collected at Erro-Tobbio, syn-kinematic melt-rock reactions of pyroxene porphyroclasts and Si-undersaturated melt led to the formation of ultramylonitic neoblast tails (grain size ~10 μm). Compared to the adjacent coarser-grained olivine-dominated matrix, the activation of diffusion creep led to an increase in the strain rate by an order of magnitude within interconnected ultramylonitic layers. Strain localization and softening in ultramylonitic layers are also documented in the Lanzo samples. Neoblast tails of pyroxene porphyroclasts were likewise identified as their precursor. The phase assemblage of the tails, including ortho- and clinopyroxene, olivine, plagioclase, and spinel (± amphibole), and their geochemical trends suggest, unlike in Erro-Tobbio, a formation by continuous net-transfer reactions enhanced by the spinel lherzolite to plagioclase lherzolite transition.
The new results obtained from the three studied shear zones underscore the importance of reactions for the interlinked processes of grain size reduction, phase mixing, strain localization and strain softening in upper mantle shear zones. Concerning strain localization, the nature of the reaction (solid-solid, melt/fluid-rock) seems to play a subordinate role compared to its timing. Pre- to early syn-kinematic melt-triggered reactions result in strain localization along map-scale shear zones. Late stage syn-kinematic melt-rock or metamorphic reactions under high stress conditions are capable of localizing the deformation along discrete, sub-centimeter thick ultramylonites.
This work analyses several granitic bodies of the Variscan Orogen of Central and Western Europe in order to improve our knowledge about different aspects of their evolution, regarding their ascent and emplacement mechanisms, as well as their deformation history. In the Iberian Massif two granitoid bodies, namely the La Bazana pluton and the Nisa-Alburquerque batholith, were studied in order to decipher their ascent and emplacement history. The La Bazana pluton is a small, sub-circular body in map view that intruded into rocks of the Ossa-Morena Zone in the core of a late upright antiform. Its three-dimensional drop-pipe shape, its internal dome foliation pattern and the structure of the host rock suggest that the magma ascended and emplaced diapirically. The Nisa-Alburquerque batholith is a large body that intruded into rocks of the Central Iberian Zone, the Central Unit, and the Ossa-Morena Zone. Its cartographic shape is elongate and parallel to the NW—SE to WNW—ESE Variscan structures. In the light of the available structural data and the gravimetric models, the intrusion is viewed as a continuous lateral magma flow from the eastern root guided towards the west through the southern limb of a kilometre-scale antiform. As mass-transfer mechanisms, a combination of rigid translation of the country rocks, stoping, and possibly ballooning is proposed. In the Bohemian Massif several small granitoid bodies showing a strong solid-state deformation were studied in order to integrate their tectonometamorphic history in the geotectonic framework of the south-western Bohemian Massif, focusing principally on the deformation phase referred to as D3. Four ductile deformation phases are proposed for the study area. D1 produced high-temperature fabrics under upper amphibolite to granulite facies conditions. Its kinematics is unknown. D2 occurred under amphibolite to upper greenschist facies conditions under N—S to NNW—SSE compression. It is responsible for a subvertical NW—SE striking foliation in migmatites developed under dextral simple shear and for the deformation at the Bayerischer Pfahl shear-zone system at its earlier stages. Many granitoid dykes and stocks were found to be affected by sinistral shear along subvertical planes trending ENE to ESE. Since this deformation, which is called D3 in the present work, is not compatible with a N—S to NNW—SSE compression, it is proposed that these sinistral shear zones in granites do not belong to the Bayerischer Pfahl shear-zone system and constitute themselves a separated one, which is called “D3 shear-zone system”. D3 took place under upper greenschist to lower amphibolite facies conditions (~480-550°C). Both the intrusion and the deformation of the granites affected by D3 occurred at deep to intermediate levels of the crust, whereas the deformation took place under NE—SW compression. Datings on two of the deformed granites yielded 324.4 ± 0.8 Ma and 315.0 ± 1.0 Ma: Thus, the age of D3 is most probably ~315 Ma. The intrusion of most of the sheared granitoids was pre-kinematic with respect to D3. After D3 the N—S to NNW—SSE compression which governed D2 was restored, giving way to the next deformation phase D4, which was linked to further deformation at and next to the principal shears of the Bayerischer Pfahl shear-zone system under greenschist facies conditions. The causes for the change of the stress field leading to a NE—SW compression during D3 might be related to (1) global changes in the dynamics of the tectonic plates in late Variscan times, (2) orogenic collapse leading to the sinking of the Teplá-Barrandian and lateral extrusion of the surrounding Moldanubian rocks, (3) distortion of the regional stress field by local intrusion of large stocks, such as the Saldenburg granite of the Fürstenstein Massif, or (4) distortion of the regional stress field due to the existence of ephemeral releasing bends in the Bayerischer Pfahl shear zone during its early evolution.
One possible approach to study systematically the influence of the deformation regime on the geometry of geological structures like folds and boudins is analogue modelling. For a complete understanding of the resulting structures, consideration of the third dimension is required. This PhD study deals with scaled analogue modelling under constriction and plane-strain conditions to improve our knowledge of folding and boudinage of lower crustal rocks in space and time. Plasticine is an appropriate analogue material for rocks in the lower crust. Therefore, this material was used for the experiments. The macroscopic behaviour of most types of plasticine is quite similar to rocks undergoing strain-rate softening and strain hardening regardless of the different microscopic aspects of deformation. Therefore, if one is aware that the stress exponent and viscosity increase with increasing strain, the original plasticine types used with stress exponents ranging from 5.8 to 8.0 are adequate for modelling geologic structures. The same holds for plasticine/oil mixtures. Thus, plasticine and plasticine/oil mixtures can be used to model the viscous flow of different rock types in the lower crust. If climb-accommodated dislocation creep and associated steady-state flow is assumed for the natural rocks, the plasticine/oil mixtures should be used, which flow under steady-state conditions. Three different experimental studies of plane-strain coaxial deformation of stiff layers, with viscosity η2 and stress exponent n2, embedded in a weak matrix, with viscosity η1 and stress exponent n1, have been carried out. The undeformed samples (matrix plus layer) were cubes with an edge length of 12 cm. All experimental runs have been carried out at T = 25 ± 1°C and varying strain rates ė, ranging from 7.9 x 10 high -6 s high -1 to 1.7 x 10 high -2 s high -1, until a finite longitudinal strain of 30% – 40% was achieved. The first experimental study improved the understanding about the evolution of folds and boudins when the layer is oriented perpendicular to the Y-axis of the finite strain ellipsoid. The rock analogues used were Beck’s green plasticine (matrix) and Beck’s black plasticine (competent layer), both of which are strain-rate softening modelling materials with stress exponent n = ca. 8. The effective viscosity η of the matrix plasticine was changed by adding different amounts of oil to the original plasticine. At a strain rate ė of 10 high -3 s high -1 and a finite strain e of 10%, the effective viscosity of the matrix ranges from 1.2 x 10 high 6 to 7.2 x 10 high 6 Pa s. The effective viscosity of the competent layer has been determined as 4.2 x 10 high 7 Pa s. If the viscosity ratio is large (> ca. 20) and the initial thickness of the competent layer is small, both folds and boudins develop simultaneously. Although the growth rate of the folds seems to be higher than the growth rate of the boudins, the wavelength of both structures is approximately the same as is suggested by analytical solutions. A further unexpected, but characteristic, aspect of the deformed competent layer is a significant increase in thickness, which can be used to distinguish plane-strain folds and boudins from constrictional folds and boudins. In the second experimental study, the impact of varying strain rates on growing folds and boudins under plane strain have been investigated. The strain rates used range from 7.9 x 10 high -6 s high -1 to 1.7 x 10 high -2 s high -1. The stiff layer and matrix consist of non-linear viscous Kolb grey and Beck’s green plasticine, respectively, both of which are strain-rate softening modelling materials with power law exponents (n) and apparent viscosities (η) ranging from 6.5 to 7.9 and 8.5 x 10 high 6 to 7.2 x 10 high 6 Pa s, respectively. The effective viscosity (η) of the matrix plasticine was partly modified by adding oil to the original plasticine. At the strain rates used in the experiments the viscosity ratio between layer and matrix ranges between 3 and 10. Different runs have been carried out where the layer was oriented perpendicular to the principal strain axes (X>Y>Z). The results suggest a considerable influence of the strain rate on the geometry of the deformed stiff layer including its thickness. This holds for every type of layer orientation (S ┴ X, S ┴ Y, S ┴ Z). If the stiff layer is oriented perpendicular to the short axis Z of the finite strain ellipsoid, the number of the resulting boudins and the thickness of the stiff layer increase, whereas the length of boudins decreases with increasing strain rate. If the stiff layer is oriented perpendicular to the long axis, X, of the finite strain ellipsoid, enlargement of the strain rate results in increasing wavelength of folds, whereas the number of folds and the degree of thickening of the stiff layer decreased. If the stiff layer is oriented perpendicular to the intermediate Y-axis of the finite strain ellipsoid enlargement of the strain rate results in a decreasing number of boudins and folds associated with increasing wavelengths of both structures. The wavelength of folds is approximately half of the boudins wavelength. This is true for the case where folds and boudins develop simultaneously (S ┴ Y) and for cases where both structures develop independently (folds at S ┴ X and boudins at S ┴ Z). In the third experimental study, scaled analogue experiments have been carried out to demonstrate the growth of plane-strain folds and boudins through space and time. Previous 3D-studies are based only on finite deformation structures. Their results can therefore not be used to prove if both structures grew simultaneously or in sequence. Plane strain acted on a single stiff layer that was embedded in a weak matrix, with the layer oriented perpendicular to the intermediate Y-axis of the finite strain ellipsoid. Two different experimental runs have been carried out using computer tomography (CT) to analyse the results. The first run was carried out without interruption. During the second run, the deformation was stopped in each case at longitudinal strain increments of 10%. Every experiment was carried out at a temperature T of 25°C and a strain rate, ė, of ca. 4 x 10 high -3 s high -1 until a finite longitudinal strain of 40% was achieved with a viscosity contrast m of 18.6 between the non-linear viscous layer (Kolb brown plasticine) and the matrix (Beck’s green plasticine with 150 ml oil kg high -1). The apparent viscosity, η, and the stress exponent, n, for the layer at a strain rate ė = ca. 10 high -3 s high -1 and a finite strain e = 10% are 2.23 x 10 high 7 Pa s and n = 5.8 and for the matrix 1.2 x 10 high 6 Pa s and 10.5. These new data that result from incremental analogue modelling corroborate previous suggestions that folds and boudins are coeval structures in cases of plane-strain coaxial deformation with the stiff layer oriented perpendicular to the intermediate Y-axis of the finite strain ellipsoid. They will be of interest for all workers who are dealing with plane-strain boudins and folds, where the fold axes are parallel to the major axis (X) of the finite strain ellipsoid. As has been demonstrated by the first experimental study, coeval folding and boudinage under plane strain, with S ┴ Y, are associated with a significant increase in the thickness of the competent layer. The latter phenomenon does not occur in other cases of simultaneous folding and boudinage, such as bulk pure constriction. To study the impact of layer thickness on the geometry of folds and boudins under pure constriction, we carried out additional experiments using different types of plasticine for a stiff layer and a weaker matrix to model folding and boudinaging under pure constriction, with the initially planar layer oriented parallel to the Xaxis of the finite strain ellipsoid. The stiff layer and matrix consist of non-linear viscous Kolb brown and Beck’s green plasticine, respectively, both of which are strain-rate softening modelling materials. Six runs have been carried out using thicknesses of the stiff layer of 1, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 ± 0.2 mm. All experimental runs were carried out at a temperature T of 30 ± 2°C and a strain rate, ė, of ca. 1.1 x 10 high -4 s high -1 until a finite longitudinal strain of 40% was achieved with a viscosity contrast m of 3.1 between the stiff layer (Kolb brown plasticine) and the matrix (Beck’s green plasticine). The apparent viscosity, η, and the stress exponent, n, for the layer at a strain rate ė = ca. 10 high -3 s high -1 and a finite strain e = 10% are 2.23 x 10 high 7 Pa s and n = 5.8 and for the matrix 7.2 x 10 high 6 Pa s and 7.9. Our results suggest a considerable influence of the initial thickness of the stiff layer on the geometry of the deformed stiff layer. There is no evidence for folding in XY=XZ-sections if the initial thickness of the competent layer is larger than ca. 8 mm. If the initial thickness of the competent layer is set at ca. 10 ± 0.2 mm, both folds and boudins develop simultaneously. However, the growth rate of the boudins seems to be higher than the growth rate of the folds. A further expected, but characteristic, aspect of the deformed competent layer is no change in thickness of the competent layer, which can be used to distinguish plane-strain folds and boudins from constrictional folds and boudins. The model results are important for the analysis and interpretation of deformation structures in rheologically stratified rocks undergoing dislocation creep under bulk constriction. Tectonic settings where constrictional folds and boudins may develop simultaneously are stems of salt diapirs, subduction zones or thermal plumes. To make (paleo) viscosimetric statements possible, the rheological data of the different plasticine types were related to the geometrical data. When comparing the normalized dominant wavelength Wd obtained from the deformed layer of the models with the theoretical dominant wavelength (Ld) calculated using the Smith equation (1977, 1979), the latter probably also holds when folding and boudinage develop simultaneously (S ┴ Y) and when boudins develop independently (S ┴ Z), but can obviously not be applied at very low viscosity ratios as is indicated by the low-strain-rate experiments.
In Ostkreta tritt innerhalb der Phyllit-Quarzit-Serie ein in vier Einheiten untergliederbares präalpidisches Altkristallin auf. Das basale Kalavros-Kristallin (KCC) wurde während der permischen (Monazitalter) Barrow-Metamorphose (Staurolith-Zone) überprägt. Unter amphibolitfaziellen Metamorphosebedingungen bildeten sich liegende Isoklinalfalten sowie eine mylonitische Foliation. Die Verteilung der -c-Achsen von Quarzen belegt non-koaxiale Deformation durch Rhomben<a>- und Prismen<a>Gleitung, die sich in einer hochtemperierten Grenzflächenwanderung (GBM) äußerte. Zudem wuchsen vierphasige Granate, in denen die äußerste Zone auf einen nochmaligen Druckanstieg hindeutet. Die Granate wurden wiederum von Muskoviten, die aus einer Deformation mit Top-E- bis Top-NE-Scherung resultierten, überwachsen. Das überlagernde Myrsini-Kristallin (MCC) besteht aus Glimmerschiefern, Gneisen, Quarziten und Marmoren. Die Liefergebiete der Paragesteine (Zirkonaltersspektrum eines Paragneises) weisen Einflüsse der amazonischen- (2,8 Ga), eburnischen- (1,9 Ga), kibaran/sunsasischen- (0,9 - 1,1 Ga) und panafrikanischen- (0,9 - 0,5 Ga) Orogenese auf. Im Mittelkambrium intrudierten Granite in die sedimentären/kristallinen Gesteine (514 ±14 Ma zrn & 507 ±189 Ma mnz). Während des Unterkarbons (Monazitalter) fand eine Barrow-Metamorphose (Staurolith-Zone) mit non-koaxialer Top-N-Scherung statt. Hierbei bildeten sich geschlossene, liegende Falten sowie eine mylonitische Foliation. Die Quarz-c-Achsen belegen non-koaxiale Rhomben<a>- bis Prismen<a>Gleitung, die sich in Subkornrotations-Rekristallisation (SGR) und hochtemperierter Korngrenzwanderungs-Rekristallisation (GBM) äußerte. Im Gegensatz zu den Granaten des KCC bildeten sich nur dreiphasige Granate. Während des retrograden variszischen Deformationspfades entstanden Top-NE-Scherzonen. Der bis in die Unterkreide anhaltende Aufstieg der Gesteine wird von Zirkon-Spaltspurenaltern (150 ±14 Ma) dokumentiert. Das hangende Chamezí-Kristallin (CCC) besteht aus Gneisen und Glimmerschiefern. Auch hier intrudierten im Mittelkambrium (S-Typ-)Granite (511 ±16 Ma zrn & 521 ±28 Ma mnz). Relikte einer prävariszischen Orogenese stellen die Granatkerne und Margarite in den Glimmerschiefern dar. Das Alter der Barrow-Metamorphose (Granat-Zone) mit Top-N-Scherung konnte mangels geeigneter Minerale nicht bestimmt werden. Die Verteilung der Quarz-c-Achsen resultiert aus einer non-koaxialen Deformation bei der überwiegend Basis<a>- und Rhomben<a>Gleitung mit Subkornrotations-Rekristallisation (SGR) auftrat. Es bildete sich eine protomylonitische Foliation sowie liegende offene N-S Falten, die anschließend mehrphasig überprägt wurden. Für einen langsamen Aufstieg der Gesteine sprechen die semiduktilen Top-NE-Scherzonen und jurassischen Zirkon-Spaltspurenalter (158 ±16 Ma). Eine unbekannte Position innerhalb des Altkristallins nimmt das Vaí-Kristallin (VCC) ein. Während der Trias intrudierten hier granitoide Gesteine (223 ±11Ma zrn). Eine spätere amphibolitfazielle Überprägung zeigt Top-NW-Scherung. Der schnelle Aufstieg der Gesteine wird durch jurassische Zirkon-Spaltspurenalter dokumentiert (184 ±11 Ma). Die Kristallingerölle der hangenden skythischen Metakalkkonglomerate können auf Grund der permischen bis triassischen Metamorphose der kretischen Altkristalline, der triassischen Intrusion der Granite des Vaí-Kristallins sowie den jurassischen Zirkon-Spaltspurenaltern nicht aus der unterlagernden Altkristallin-Einheit stammen. Der Kontakt zwischen dem Altkristallin und dem Metakalkkonglomerat ist somit das Ergebnis der alpidischen Orogenese. Auch die Zirkone, Monazite und Rutile wurden von der Niedertemperatur/Hochdruck-Metamorphose der alpidischen Orogenese beeinflusst. Vor allem die Zirkone des Chamezí-Orthogneises zeigen einen Pb- und vermutlich auch einen U-Verlust sowie einen Austausch von radiogenem Pb durch rezentes Pb. Dieser niedergradige Fluidtransport äußerte sich zudem in einem Lösen der Zirkone sowie einer zerstörten Zirkonstruktur. Gleichzeitig fand ein Einbau von Ca2+, Mn2+ und Mg2+ statt, der von den Ca-reichen Fluiden, die auf Grund der Karbonat-reichen Deckenstapel auftraten, forciert wurde. Keinen Einfluss auf den Blei-Verlust der Zirkone zeigt dagegen die amphibolit- bis grünschieferfazielle präalpidische Überprägung. Auf Grund der Altersspektren der Zirkone sowie der tektonischen Transportrichtungen werden die Kristallinkomplexe als Fragmente von Gondwana interpretiert. Im Rahmen der spät-panafrikanischen Metamorphose und Deformation erfolgte der Aufstieg der Plutonite, an die sich eine Riftingphase anschließt, während der sich die Fragmente abspalteten. Im Karbon bis Perm kollidierten unter Top-N-Kinematik das MCC, CCC und KCC mit Gondwana. In der Trias erfolgte letztlich der Aufstieg der Plutonite des VCC und dessen anschließende Überprägung. Die Heraushebung der Gesteine erfolgte im Jura.