Refine
Year of publication
Document Type
- Doctoral Thesis (32)
Has Fulltext
- yes (32)
Is part of the Bibliography
- no (32)
Keywords
- Cytochromoxidase (2)
- Protonentransfer (2)
- Absorptionsspektroskopie (1)
- AlignMe (1)
- Alignment (1)
- Arzneimitteldesingn (1)
- Arzneimittelentwicklung (1)
- Atemwege (1)
- Bioenergetik (1)
- Cardiolipin (1)
Institute
- Biochemie und Chemie (22)
- Biochemie, Chemie und Pharmazie (5)
- Biowissenschaften (2)
- Physik (2)
- MPI für Biophysik (1)
- Pharmazie (1)
Der Cytochrom-bc1-Komplex katalysiert die Elektronenübertragung von Ubihydrochinon auf Cytochrom c in der Atmungskette und in der bakteriellen Photosynthese. Das Enzym stellt somit das Bindeglied zwischen den Ubihydrochinon bildenden Dehydrogenasen und der Cytochrom c oxidierenden Cytochrom-c-Oxidase dar. Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden die Wechselwirkungen des Cytochrom-bc1-Komplexes aus Saccharomyces cerevisiae mit seinen Substraten Ubichinon und Cytochrom c sowie mit Phospholipiden der inneren Mitochondrienmembran untersucht. Durch Analyse von Gesamtlipidextrakten aus Proben des Cytochrom-bc1-Komplexes konnte gezeigt werden, daß das Enzym in Anwesenheit von vier verschiedenen Phospholipiden gereinigt und kristallisiert werden kann. In der Kristallstruktur des Enzyms bei 2,3 Å Auflösung wurden fünf Bindungsstellen für Phospholipide und eine Bindungsstelle für ein Detergensmolekül identifiziert. Die Bindungsstelle für eines der Phospholipide, ein Cardiolipin-Molekül, liegt am Eingang eines von zwei Protonierungspfaden für die Ubichinon-Reduktionsstelle (Qi-Bindungsstelle). Ein Phosphatidylinosit-Molekül befindet sich in einer außergewöhnlichen Position unweit der flexiblen "Linker"-Region des Rieske Eisen-Schwefel-Proteins und trägt vermutlich zur Stabilisierung dieser katalytischen Untereinheit bei. Durch Röntgenbeugung an Kokristallen bestehend aus Cytochrom-bc1-Komplex und gebundenem Cytochrom c konnte die dreidimensionale Struktur dieses transienten Enzym-Substrat-Komplexes bei 2,97 Å ermittelt werden. Die Kristallstruktur ist die erste Struktur des Cytochrom c im Komplex mit einem seiner beiden Redoxpartner aus der Atmungskette. Sie zeigt, daß das Cytochrom c hauptsächlich durch hydrophobe Wechselwirkungen an das Cytochrom c1 bindet und daß die Nähe der beiden c-Typ Hämgruppen eine schnelle Reduktion des Cytochrom c erlaubt. Im homodimeren Cytochrom-bc1-Komplex ist nur eine der beiden Bindungsstellen für Cytochrom c besetzt. Diese hälftige Substratbindung zeigte sich auch für das Ubichinon in der Qi- Bindungsstelle und weist darauf hin, daß die beiden Monomere des Enzyms unabhängig voneinander oder sequentiell arbeiten können. Möglicherweise dient dies der Regulation der Enzymaktivität des Cytochrom-bc1-Komplexes. Durch partielle Reduktion des Cytochrom-bc1-Komplexes in Anwesenheit von Ubichinon konnte ein proteingebundenes Ubisemichinonradikal erzeugt und durch Schockgefrieren stabilisiert werden. Die spektralen Eigenschaften dieses Radikals sind typisch für ein Ubisemichinon an der Qi-Bindungsstelle. Durch Spektroskopie an einer Probe, die einem Wasserstoff/Deuterium-Austausch unterzogen wurde, konnte gezeigt werden, daß dieses Radikal von Protonen koordiniert wird, die mit dem Solvens im Austausch stehen. Dies steht in Übereinstimmung mit der Theorie des Q-Zyklus und wurde durch die hochauflösenden Kristallstruktur des Enzyms bei 2,3 Å vorhergesagt. Die erzielten Ergebnisse zeigen neue Informationen zum Wechselspiel des Cytochrom- bc1-Komplexes mit Phospholipiden aus der inneren Mitochondrienmembran. Die Bestimmung der Struktur des transienten Komplexes bestehend aus Enzym und Cytochrom c erweitert das Bild über den Elektronentransfer durch Cytochrom c zwischen dem Cytochrom-bc1-Komplex und der Cytochrom-c-Oxidase. Das mögliche Zusammenwirken der Bindungstellen für Cytochrom c und Ubichinon ist ein neuer mechanistischer Aspekt, der auf eine Regulation der Enzymaktivität schließen läßt.
Purification and characterization of heterologously produced cannabinoid receptor 1 and G proteins
(2007)
G protein coupled receptors form the largest group of transmembrane proteins, which are involved in signal transduction and are targeted directly or indirectly by 40-50% of the drugs in the market. Even though a lot of biochemical and pharmacological information was acquired for these receptors in the past decades, structural information is still insufficient. G protein coupled receptors are expressed in a very minute scale in the tissues. Purification of G protein coupled receptors, in amounts needed for structural studies, from native tissue is tedious and almost impossible. To overcome this first hurdle of insufficient protein, several heterologous protein expression systems are being used. Another difficulty in structural determination of a G protein coupled receptor is that it is a membrane protein. Membrane proteins are difficult targets for structural studies. One of the possible reasons is the little hydrophilic surface area on the membrane protein, reducing the chances of crystal contact between the molecules. The present work is an attempt to investigate possible ways to overcome these problems. Aim of the project was to use G proteins to increase the hydrophilic area of the G protein coupled receptor. G protein is a physiological partner to the G protein coupled receptor which makes the complex functionally relevant. In the present work five G alpha proteins were purified to homogeneity by a two step purification using metal affinity and ion-exchange chromatography. The G alpha subunits purified were tested for their detergent susceptibility. It was found that only some G proteins were active in the presence of detergent. Observation from contemporary reports also suggest that the G alpha proteins expressed in Escherichia coli, alone may not be sufficient to bind to the G protein coupled receptors in solution. So the project was extended towards expressing a G protein coupled receptor which was reported to exist in a complex with the G proteins, in the cells. Purifying such a functional complex could be more beneficial to use for crystallization. Cannabinoid receptors were chosen for heterologous expression and purification. Production of recombinant cannabinoid receptor 2 was investigated in Pichia pastoris. The protein obtained was highly heterogenous. There were several oligomeric forms as well as degradation products in the cell membranes. Most of the protein was lost in the purification steps leading to a poor yield. Several oligomeric forms and other impurities were still present in the protein sample after purification. Alternatively, a baculovirus mediated insect cell expression system was investigated, to produce the receptors. Cannabinoid receptor 1 was investigated in insect cell expression system because of its better biochemical understanding and pharmacological importance than cannabinoid receptor 2. Cannabinoid receptor 1 was produced in two forms, a full length and a distal carboxy terminal truncated version. All the several gene constructs made could be expressed in the Spodoptera frugiperda (Sf9) insect cells. Expression levels (Bmax) for the constructs with a decahistidine tag at the amino terminus and Strep-tagII at the carboxy terminus were 40 pmol/mg and 53 pmol/mg respectively, for full length and truncated versions. These expression levels are 2 fold higher than the levels reported till now in the literature. As was quite evident from previous experiences of other research groups, purification of this receptor was a challenge. Protein purified from immobilized metal affinity chromatography (Ni-nitrilo tri acetate)(Ni-NTA) was not even 50% pure. A second purification by immobilized monomeric avidin or Streptactin agarose, making use of Biotag and StreptagII respectively, drastically reduced the protein recovery. Later on, purification of receptor was investigated on different metal chelating resins. His-Select, a Ni-NTA based matrix from Sigma, with much lesser density than Ni-NTA from Qiagen, showed a better purification profile. Purification was optimized to get 80% homogeneity but with low yield (20%). Further efforts are needed to improve the yield and purity of the receptor, to use it for crystallization. Cannabinoid receptors are known to exist in a precoupled form to G proteins in the cells. The existence of such precoupled forms of the receptor was investigated using the fluorescence techniques. Guanosine-5-triphosphate binding assay on the cell membranes, in the absence of agonists confirmed the active precoupled form of the receptor. It was found that it is possible to co-immunoprecipitate the complex. These results show that the truncated cannabinoid receptor can be produced in functional form in insect cells in much higher yields than reported. This receptor exists as a complex with G proteins even in the absence of ligands. It was also shown that the receptor/G protein complex can be coimmunoprecipitated. Further work is required to investigate the possibility of purifying this complex to use it for co-crystallization.
Obwohl die Kristallstrukturen der CytochromcOxidase aus RinderherzMitochondrien und dem Bodenbakterium P. denitrificans bekannt sind und die Funktionsweise des Enzyms mit Hilfe zahlreicher Methoden bereits intensiv untersucht wurde, wird nach wie vor kontrovers diskutiert, an welcher Stelle im katalytischen Zyklus wieviele Protonen aufgenommen bzw. gepumpt werden und über welchen der beiden Protoneneintrittspfade dies geschieht. Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war es, diesen Fragestellungen mit Hilfe von elektrischen Messungen nachzugehen, um dann ein genaueres Bild von der mechanistischen Funktionsweise des Enzyms zu erhalten. Hierzu wurden Teilschritte des katalytischen Zyklus der CytochromcOxidase aus P. denitrificans genauer untersucht. Dies gelang durch Spannungsmessungen an der schwarzen Lipidmembran mit Ru II (2,2'bipyridyl) 3 Cl 2 (Rubpy) als lichtinduzierbarem Einelektronendonor. Es konnte gezeigt werden, daß ausgehend vom vollständig oxidierten Zustand O nach Lichtanregung ein Elektron von Rubpy auf die Oxidase übertragen und anschließend vom CuA zum Häm a mit einer Zeitkonstanten von » 20 µs transportiert wird. Zeitaufgelöste spektroskopi sche Messungen deuten darauf hin, daß das Elektron auf dem Häm a verbleibt. Die Reduktion dieses Kofaktors führt zu einer Protonenaufnahme über den KWeg mit einer Zeitkonstanten von » 175 µs. Nimmt man an, daß sich Häm a in der Mitte des Dielektrikums befindet (Hinkle und Mitchell, 1970), so deuten die relativen Amplituden der beiden Phasen an, daß etwa 0.8 Protonen aufgenommen werden, in sehr guter Übereinstimmung mit (Capitanio et al., 2000). Aus MehrfachblitzExperimenten unter anaeroben Bedingungen, ausgehend vom OZustand, konnten erste Erkenntnisse über den E ® R Übergang gewonnen werden, nämlich daß hierbei ein Prozeß mit einer Zeitkonstanten von ca. 1.1 ms auftritt und daß sowohl K als auch DWeg an diesem Teilschritt des katalytischen Zyklus beteiligt sind. Da mit der MehrfachblitzMethode aber immer ein Gemisch aus verschiedenen Zuständen entsteht, war es nicht möglich, quantitative Aussagen über die Zahl der transportierten Ladungen zu treffen. Aus diesem Grund wurde eine Möglichkeit gesucht, den EZustand in hoher Ausbeute mit ausreichender Stabilität herzustellen, um dann ein Elektron zu übertragen. Dies gelang durch Darstellung des OxoferrylZustandes F mit Hilfe von H 2 O 2 und anschließende Zweielektronenreduktion durch CO. Die Übertragung von einem Elektron auf den so gebildeten EZustand lieferte 3 Phasen im Spannungssignal mit Zeitkonstanten von » 25 µs, » 200 µs und » 1.5 ms. Die relativen Amplituden dieser Phasen und die Ergebnisse von K und DWegMutanten legen nahe, daß nach Aufnahme des 2. Elektrons vermutlich ein Proton über den KWeg aufgenommen und anschließend 1 Proton über den DWeg gepumpt wird. Es konnte somit zum ersten Mal gezeigt werden, daß bereits während des reduktiven Teils (O ® R) des katalytischen Zyklus ein Proton von der intrazellulären zur extrazellulären Seite transportiert wird und zwar ohne daß unmittelbar vorher die Sauerstoffreduktion stattgefunden haben muß. Erste Experimente zum P ® F Übergang lassen sich so deuten, daß mit Aufnahme des 3. Elektrons ein Proton zum binuklearen Zentrum transportiert und mindestens 1, wenn nicht gar 2 Protonen durch das Enzym gepumpt werden. Hier sind noch weitere Experimente nötig, um die genaue Zahl der transportierten Ladungen und die für die einzelnen Protonenbewegungen verwendeten Protoneneintrittspfade zu bestimmen. Messungen zum F ® O Übergang schließlich zeigten, daß nach dem CuA ® Häm a Elektro nentransfer mit einer Zeitkonstanten von ca. 25 µs vermutlich 1 Proton über den DWeg bis zu den Hämen transportiert (t » 270 µs) und anschließend ein Proton ebenfalls über den DWeg gepumpt wird (t » 1.5 ms). Aus den gewonnenen Daten wurde ein neuer Mechanismus für die Sauerstoffreduktion in der ParacoccusCOX entwickelt. Dieser beruht auf dem von Mitchell und Rich postulierten Elektroneutralitätsprinzip (Mitchell und Rich, 1994) und ist stark an das von Michel vorgeschlagene Modell (Michel, 1998; Michel, 1999) angelehnt. Zur Klärung der Fragen, ob sich bakterielles und RinderzEnzym eventuell in ihrem Mechanismus unterscheiden oder ob nicht eventuell ein Proton während des O ® E Übergangs gepumpt wird (allerdings nur, wenn unmittelbar vorher die Sauerstoffreduktion durchlaufen wurde), sind u.a. noch intensivere Untersuchungen des P ® F Teilschrittes notwendig. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurden weiterhin 2 verschiedene Kobaltkomplexe auf ihre Eignung als lichtinduzierbare Sauerstoffdonatoren (cagedSauerstoff) für die COX untersucht. Hierbei stellte sich heraus, daß beide Verbindungen ungeeignet sind, da sie entweder instabil sind ((µsuperoxo)bis[pentaammincobalt(III)]) oder Nebenreaktionen mit dem Protein eingehen ((µperoxo)(µhydroxo)bis[bis(bipyridyl)cobalt(III)]). Abschließend wurde der Einfluß von Zn 2 Ionen auf elektrogene Schritte im katalytischen Zyklus genauer erforscht. Es wurde deutlich, daß Zn 2 bakterielle COX von beiden Seiten inhibieren kann, wobei die Bindestelle(n) auf der intrazellulären Seite im Gegensatz zur extrazellulären Seite hochaffin ist/sind. Die elektrischen Messungen deuten darauf hin, daß hierbei sowohl D als auch KWeg blockiert werden, wobei die exakte Position der Metallbindestelle(n) noch zu klären ist.
Die Cytochrom c Oxidase von Paracoccus denitrificans katalysiert die Reduktion von Sauerstoff zu Wasser und „pumpt“ zusätzlich vier Protonen von der cytoplasmatischen Seite auf die periplasmatische Seite der Cytoplasmamembran. Die Spaltung des molekularen Sauerstoffes im binuklearen Zentrum erfolgt im katalytischen Zyklus des Enzyms bei der Umwandlung des Intermediates A, in welchem molekularer Sauerstoff an das Häm a3 Eisen gebunden ist, in das Intermediat PM durch spontane elektronische Umorganisation. Drei der dazu benötigten vier Elektronen werden von den Metallzentren geliefert. Das vierte Elektron wird sehr wahrscheinlich von einer Aminosäure in der Nähe des binuklearen Zentrums durch Bildung eines Aminosäureradikals beigesteuert. Dieses Radikal sollte in den Intermediaten PM und F• des katalytischen Zyklus der Cytochrom c Oxidase vorhanden sein. Durch Reaktion von stöchiometrischen Mengen an Wasserstoffperoxid mit dem vollständig oxidierten Enzym lassen sich PM; F• und F-Intermediate künstlich erzeugen und durch ihre Maxima in Absorptionsdifferenzspektren charakterisieren. Mit paramagnetischer Elektronenresonanzspektroskopie (EPR-Spektroskopie) können Struktur und Dynamik paramagnetischer Zentren in Proteinmolekülen untersucht werden. Mit dieser Methode konnte in mit Wasserstoffperoxid generierten PM und F•-Intermediaten ein Tyrosinradikal nachgewiesen werden. Der Schwerpunkt der vorliegenden Arbeit war die Identifikation dieses Tyrosins mittels einer Mutagenesestudie. Dazu wurden Tyrosinvarianten (Y35F, Y167F, Y267F, Y280H, Y328F und Y414F) aus Untereinheit I, die einen maximalen Abstand von 25 Angström vom binuklearen Zentrum aufweisen, mit Hilfe von Absorptions- und EPR-Spektroskopie charakterisiert. Auf diese Weise konnte nachgewiesen werden, dass Tyrosin 167 eindeutig der Ursprungsort des Tyrosinradikals ist, das bei der Generierung von PM- und F•-Intermediaten der Cytochrom c Oxidase mit Wasserstoffperoxid entsteht. Da die Variante Y167F jedoch eine hohe katalytische Aktivität aufwies und in der Lage war, die Oxoferrylintermediate PM; F• und F zu bilden, konnte gleichzeitig gezeigt werden, dass dieses Tyrosin nicht der primäre Donor des vierten Elektrons sein kann, das im katalytischen Zyklus des Enzyms für die Spaltung der Sauerstoffbindung benötigt wird. Diese Ergebnisse wurden dahingehend interpretiert, dass Tyrosin 167 eine thermodynamische Senke darstellt, in die das von einem unbekannten kurzlebigen Elektronendonor bei der Wasserstoffperoxidreaktion gebildete Radikal verschoben wird. Als Donor des vierten Elektrons für die Sauerstoffspaltung kommt auch Tryptophan 272 infrage. Daher wurde auch die Variante W272M spektroskopisch charakterisiert. Diese Variante war katalytisch inaktiv und nicht in der Lage in Reaktion mit Wasserstoffperoxid die Intermediate PM, F• und F zu bilden. Es ließen sich weder das Tyrosin-167-Radikal noch ein anderes Radikal nachweisen. Diese Ergebnisse sprechen dafür, dass Tryptophan 272 möglicherweise der ursprüngliche Donor des vierten Elektrons für die Sauerstoffspaltung im katalytischen Zyklus der Cytochrom c Oxidase sein könnte. Während des PM zu F-Übergangs im katalytischen Zyklus der Cytochrom c Oxidase werden zwei Protonen gepumpt. Diese können vom Enzym entweder über den D-Weg oder den K-Weg aufgenommen werden. Eine Untersuchung des PM zu F-Übergangs von D-Weg- und K-Weg-Varianten der Cytochrom c Oxidase kann Aufschluss über die Beteiligung der beiden Protonenaufnahmewege des Enzyms an diesem Schritt des katalytischen Zyklus geben. Daher wurde die Reaktion der D-Weg Varianten D124N, N131D, Y35F und E278Q und der K-Weg Variante K354M mit Wasserstoffperoxid absorptionsspektroskopisch untersucht. Durch diese Experimente konnte die zentrale Bedeutung des D-Weges für die Protonentranslokation im PM zu F-Übergangs bestätigt, aber auch ein gewisser Einfluss des K-Weges nicht ausgeschlossen werden. Außerdem wurde der PM zu F-Übergang der Variante R437N, die eventuell Teil des noch nicht konkret identifizierten Protonenaustrittsweg der Cytochrom c Oxidase ist, untersucht.
The cytochrome bc1 complex or ubiquinol:cytochrome c oxidoreductase (QCR) catalyses electron transfer from ubiquinol to cytochrome c in respiration and photosynthesis coupled to a vectorial proton transport across the membrane, in which the enzyme resides. In both bacteria and eukaryotic organisms, QCR participates in supramolecular assembly of membrane proteins that comprise the respiratory or photosynthetic chain. In the present work, proton transfer pathways, substrate binding and the supramolecular assembly of the respiratory chain in yeast were probed by structure-based site-directed mutagenesis and characterization of the variants. Both active sites centre P, the place of quinol oxidation, and centre N, where quinone reduction takes place, lack direct access to the bulk solvent necessary for proton release and uptake. Based on the X-ray structure, proton transfer pathways were postulated. Analysis at centre P showed, that E272 and Y132 of cytochrome b are important for QCR catalysis as indicated by increased superoxide production and lowered Cyc1p reductase activity in these variants. Pre-steady state heme reduction kinetics in combination with stigmatellin resistance indicated that charge and length of the side chain at position 272 are crucial for efficient docking of the ISP to form the enzyme substrate complex and for electron bifurcation at centre P. Variants of Y312 and F129, both residues of cytochrome b, showed an increased Km indicating participation of these residues in coordination of ubiquinol or the possible intermediate semiquinone anion radical. F129 proved to be crucial for a functional Q-cycle as indicated by respiratory negative growth phenotype and a lowered H+/e- stoichiometry of F129 variants. At centre N, the postulated CL/K and E/R proton transfer pathways are located at opposite sites of the bound ubiquinone. Variants in the surface residues R218 (cytochrome b) and E52 (Qcr7) of the E/R pathway and E82 (Qcr7) of the CL/K pathway showed instability upon purification indicating an important role of these residues for QCR integrity. The slowed down centre N reduction kinetics in H85 (CL/K), R218 and N208 (both E/R) variant was attributed to a destabilised semiquinone anion consistent with the observed decreased sensitivity towards the site-specific inhibitor antimycin and an increased Km. Variants of residues of both pathway, E82Q and R218M, exhibited a decreased H+/e- stoichiometry indicating a crucial role of both residue for maintaining a working Q-cycle and supporting the proposed protonation of the substrate via the Cl/K and the E/R pathway. Long-range interaction between centre N and centre P were observed by altered reduction kinetics of the high potential chain and increased superoxide production in the centre N variants. The role of the cation-pi-interaction between F230 of Cyt1p and R19 of cytochrome c in binding of the redox carrier to QCR was analysed. In F230L hydrophobic interaction were partially lost as was deduced from the ionic strength dependence of Cyc1p reductase activity and Cycp1 binding, as detected by ionic strength sensitive Kd and Km for Cyc1p. The decreased enzymatic rate of F230W could be explained by a disturbed binding of Cyc1p to the variant enzyme. F230 may influence the heme mid point potential and thereby the electron transfer rate to Cyc1p. Reduction of Cobp via both centre P and centre N was disturbed suggesting an interaction between high and low potential chain. Supramolecular association between QCR and cytochrome c oxidase (COX) in yeast mitochondria was probed by affinity chromatography of a his-tagged QCR in the presence of the mild detergent digitonin. In comparison to purification with laurylmaltoside, the presence of both QCR and COX subunits was detected in the elution fractions by SDS-PAGE, Cyc1p reductase and TMPD oxidase activity assays and immunoblot analysis. The CL-dependent formation of the supercomplex between QCR and COX was analysed by replacement variants in the CL-binding site of QCR in CL containing and CL free environment. With an increasing number of replacements of the three lysines the CL-binding pocket supercomplex formation was not abolished, when CL is present as shown by BN-PAGE analysis. This was supported by the synergetic decrease in enzyme activity for both enzymes upon increased number of replacements. In the CL-free environment, no supracomplex formation was observed for a wildtype CL binding site. By replacements of two lysines in the CL-binding pocket, supercomplex formation could be recovered as revealed by BN-PAGE. This indicates, that CL may serve as a charge neutralizer for the lysines near the presumed interaction domain between complex III and complex IV. The obtained results for centre P provide new information of residues critical for stabilisation of ubiquinol and controlling electron short circuit reactions. The observations for centre N variants clearly support the proposed two proton transfer pathways and the role of the bound phospholipids in centre N kinetics. Variants in the Cyc1p binding site suggest a role for F230 both in Cyc1p binding and electron transfer. Clear interaction between the high and low potential chain in both Cyt1p and centre N variants strongly support long-range interactions in the complex. Studies on the supramolecular association of complex III and complex IV indicate a new role of Cl in stabilising a supracomplex.
Cytochrome c oxidases are among the most important and fundamental enzymes of life. Integrated into membranes they use four electrons from cytochrome c molecules to reduce molecular oxygen (dioxygen) to water. Their catalytic cycle has been considered to start with the oxidized form. Subsequent electron transfers lead to the E-state, the R-state (which binds oxygen), the P-state (with an already split dioxygen bond), the F-state and the O-state again. Here, we determined structures of up to 1.9 Å resolution of these intermediates by single particle cryo-EM. Our results suggest that in the O-state the active site contains a peroxide dianion and in the P-state possibly an intact dioxygen molecule, the F-state may contain a superoxide anion.
G protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) constitute the largest family of cell-surface receptors in mammals and are key players in signal transduction. By responding to a plethora of extracellular stimuli ranging from photons to amines to fatty acids to peptides and proteins, these receptors trigger intracellular signalling cascades and regulate a variety of cellular responses. Approximately 800 genes in humans encode GPCRs which are classified according to sequence conservation into rhodopsin-like, glutamate, adhesion, frizzled/taste2 and secretin receptors. GPCRs share a seven transmembrane domain fold undergoing a conformational change upon ligand binding which is translated to the intracellular surface of the receptor thereby allowing a heterotrimeric G protein to couple. Heterotrimeric G proteins consist of a Ga, Gb and Gg subunit and dissociate into their Ga and Gbg entities upon activation by a GPCR. Subsequently, distinct signalling cascades are triggered by each G protein protomer.
Membrane proteins and GPCRs in particular, are highly important targets in drug design and development as currently approximately 60% of all marketed drugs target membrane proteins. Although these classes of proteins are of high therapeutic interest, our understanding of their mechanism of action and structure remains limited. The first structure of a human GPCR was determined in 2007 and required the development of protein engineering and innovative crystallisation techniques. Since then, approximately 130 GPCR structures of less than 40 individual receptors have been determined providing insights into the structural arrangement of the transmembrane helices, ligand binding pockets and G protein interactions. Combined with spectroscopic methods, these studies allowed a more detailed understanding of the molecular aspects of GPCR activation and signalling. Despite the tremendous advances in GPCR structural biology, certain aspects of GPCR function still remain poorly understood. Due to their size and inherent flexibility, the interaction of protein and peptide ligands with their receptors remains a challenging aspect in the structural characterisation of GPCRs. Moreover, structural information on subtype selectivity of peptide ligands continues to be scarce. To contribute functional and structural information on the molecular mechanisms of peptide interactions with GPCRs, this thesis focused on characterising receptors from the chemoattractant cluster using radioligand binding assays as well as NMR spectroscopy.
The chemoattractant cluster mainly groups the kinin, angiotensin, anaphylatoxin chemotactic complement and apelin receptors according to conserved residues in their ligand binding cavities. All receptors in this cluster bind to peptide ligands deriving from high molecular weight protein precursors upon proteolytic processing. Comparable to the conserved binding pocket of the chemoattractant receptors, the peptide ligands display a certain sequence conservation although they differ strongly in size. The largest ligands used in this thesis are the anaphylatoxins complement 3a and 5a, comprising 77 or 74 residues, respectively. Due to their size and complex fold involving three intramolecular disulphide bonds, solid phase synthesis is impossible, which prompted us to develop a modified cell-free expression system to produce these ligands in tritiated form for subsequent functional characterisation of the complement receptors. To demonstrate the versatility of the developed system, it was applied to another disulphidebond containing peptide ligand, the 21 amino acid endothelin-1. We describe a reliable and multifaceted tool to generate custom labelled peptide ligands for the structural and functional characterisation of GPCRs. The system allows the production of custom radioligands, peptides labelled for NMR studies or with fluorescent amino acids.
Apart from the modulation of GPCR activity by orthosteric ligands, GPCR signalling has long been described to be regulated by allosteric ligands including peptides, small molecules and ions. In this thesis, the influence of sodium ions on the activity state of the chemoattractant cluster receptors and in particular on the apelin, bradykinin 2 and angiotensin II type 1 receptors was examined. In recent high resolution crystal structures an allosteric sodium ion pocket beneath the orthosteric ligand binding cavity was identified and residues contributing to the coordination of sodium ions are conserved throughout the chemoattractant cluster receptors. This allosteric sodium ion coordinated within the transmembrane domain bundle has been described to negatively influence the affinity of agonists but not of antagonists. It was found that sodium ions have distinct influences on the affinity state as well as the available number of binding sites of the chemoattractant receptors. In case of the apelin and bradykinin 2 receptors, sodium ions drastically reduced the number of available binding sites whereas the affinity of peptide ligands to the bradykinin 2 receptors remained constant and the ligand binding affinities to the apelin receptor were completely abolished. In contrast, the angiotensin II type 1 receptor affinity state towards the endogenous peptide ligand angiotensin II is highly dependent on the presence of sodium ions, whereas binding of the synthetic peptide antagonist Sar1-Ile8-angiotensin II remained unaffected by the sodium ion concentration. As differential effects irrespective of the efficacy class but dependent on the amino acid composition of the applied ligands are observed, it can be concluded that electrostatic interactions between charged residues of the peptide ligands and amino acids on the extracellular surface of the receptors are influenced by sodium ions thereby adding another layer of complexity on GPCR signalling.
To elucidate the structure-function relationship of ligand selectivity between the kinin receptors, the structure of desArg10-kallidin (DAK) bound to the bradykinin 1 receptor was determined using solid state NMR (SSNMR) in the course of this thesis. The kinin peptides DAK and bradykinin bind with high affinity and high selectivity to either the bradykinin 1 or bradykinin 2 receptor, respectively. The binding pockets of the receptors are highly conserved and the two peptide ligands only differ in one amino acid at their N- and C-termini whereas the remaining eight amino acids are fully conserved. DAK adopts a U-shaped structure when bound to the bradykinin 1 receptor which resembles a horse shoe-like conformation. Using 2D TEDOR spectroscopy it could furthermore be demonstrated that positively charged residues at the N-terminal part of the peptide engage in ionic interactions with negatively charged amino acids on the extracellular surface of the bradykinin 1 receptor. In contrast, bradykinin displays a distinct b-turn at the C-terminus and an S-shaped conformation of the N-terminal segment when bound to the bradykinin 2 receptor. By using SSNMR to study the binding mode of DAK on the bradykinin 1 receptor we could determine that subtype selectivity between the kinin receptors is conferred by distinct conformational restraints within the peptide ligands and by the formation of specific ionic interaction between charged residues on the peptide and receptor, respectively.
In brief, this thesis contributes structural and functional data on the binding mechanisms and binding mode of different peptide-ligand GPCRs helping to understand subtype selectivity and allosteric modulation of the chemoattractant cluster receptors. In addition, a versatile cell-free expression system was developed that allows the custom synthesis of isotopically labelled peptides containing disulphide bonds for the functional characterisation of GPCRs.
Nicotinic acid has been used in the clinical treatment of elevated blood lipid levels for over 50 years. Although it has a beneficial effect on myocardial infarction and blood lipid profiles, its widespread use has been hampered by side effects such as skin rashes and a burning sensation on the upper body. Since elevated blood lipid levels, especially ones of VLDL and LDL cholesterol are a frequent indication and high risk factor for coronary and cardiac diseases, finding a compound with an enhanced pharmacological profile, still holding the desired effects, but without inconvenient side effects, is a very appealing aim to many pharmaceutical companies. These efforts have already produced two marketed drugs, Acipimox and Acifran, but they have not been able to overcome the restrictions already imposed on the treatment by nicotinic acid. Although proposed long before, in the year 2000 the gene for the nicotinic acid receptor in mouse PUMA-G was cloned, and in 2003 the discovery of the genes HM74 and HM74A followed, which comprise the homologous low and high affinity receptors for nicotinic acid in humans. The discovery of this G Protein-coupled receptor target allowed a more directed approach for the search of alternative compounds. This work is the first report of the heterologous overexpression of the high affinity GPCR gene HM74A in the methylotrophic yeast Pichia pastoris. The protein product, NAR1, was pharmacologically characterized, and displayed a binding affinity of 224.8 nM to its ligand nicotinic acid, showing a similar activity profile compared to those displayed in human tissue, which were determined to be 60 nM to 90 nM. Additionally, inhibitory constants (Ki) for Acifran and Acipimox were determined to be 4.5 µM and 50.5 µM, respectively. Furthermore, the total yield of NAR1 reached 42 pmol/mg membrane protein, which corresponds to 0.4 mg of receptor produced per liter yeast culture, opening up the perspective of large scale protein production to facilitate high throughput screening drug discovery efforts and structural studies. In addition, NAR1 could be solubilized in n-decyl-β-D-maltopyranoside and purified to homogeneity after immobilized metal affinity chromatography and a second affinity chromatography step on immobilized monomeric avidin, yielding a single peak on gel filtration, while the purified receptor was able to bind ligand, as shown in NMR Saturation Transfer Difference (STD) measurements. It could be shown that NAR1 is desensitized by β-arrestin 1 in vivo in confocal microscopy studies on HEK and BHK cells. This finding provides a native binding partner for the stabilization of the receptor upon solubilization and purification. Finally human β-arrestin 1 could be produced as a constitutively active variant, comprising residues 1-382 in Pichia pastoris and Escherichia coli. The purified protein was used for in vitro binding experiments and shown to be capable of interacting with NAR1. Although the interaction and formation of the complex was only possible to a limited extent, it leaves open the perspective of crystallizing NAR1 in its active conformation, bound to nicotinic acid and β-arrestin 1.
G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) from the largest family of receptors in the human body. They contain seven transmembrane helices. There are roughly 800-900 GPCR genes expressed in humans encoded by 4-5% of the human genome. These receptors are the most important signal transducers and play a crucial role in cell physiology and pathology, by using various extracellular stimuli to start complex intracellular signaling. GPCRs interact with a wide variety of stimuli from small molecules (photons, ions, amines) to large molecules (peptides, small proteins), and trigger downstream cascade effects by interacting with G-proteins, GPCR kinases, and ß-arrestin. Because of their crucial roles in many cellular functions, GPCRs are the most important drug targets for the pharmaceutical industry. Approximately 30% of the clinically approved drugs available in the market are against GPCRs. In this work achieved successful expression and purification of GPCRs from class-C and class-A families. Combined with biochemical experiments, DNP-ssNMR, and molecular simulation helped to decipher the mechanism of crosstalk between the allosteric modulator, and the orthosteric binding sites of the peptide receptor. The main findings and major highlights of this dissertation are outlined in the following paragraphs.
The calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR) belongs to the GPCR class-C family and contains a large extracellular domain. This receptor regulates Ca2+ homeostasis in blood and its absorption in the kidney and bone. To understand the molecular and structural mechanisms of these receptors their cDNAs were cloned into the pPICZ and pOET1 vectors to express them in Pichia pastoris and in Sf9 insect cells respectively. The CaSR was successfully expressed heterologously in Pichia pastoris and in the insect cell with high yield. The purified receptor purified in LMNG shows no aggregation in a monomeric state. Further optimization was performed to use it for cryo-EM sample preparation and structure determination. In 2nd part of the thesis, different mini G (mini Gs, mini Gi, mini Gqs, and mini Gsi) DNA constructs were made and expressed in E. coli. It's challenging to obtain active GPCR structures due to the instability of G-protein or G-protein-bound receptors. In this work, all mini-G proteins and chimera mini-G-protein-maltose binding protein (MBP) were cloned and expressed in E. coli and purified with a His-trap column with high purity.
In the last part of the thesis, to decipher the mechanism of allosteric modulation of orthosteric binding sites in the bradykinin receptor was produced and characterized in insect cells. Angiotensin I converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEIs), are very important drugs and are widely used for the treatment of hypertension, congestive heart failure, and diabetic neuropathy. These drugs target primarily the catalytic zinc center of the ACE. It has been shown that enalaprilat, a well-known ACEI, binds to a proposed zinc-binding site on hB1R and even directly activates the receptor. To obtain information on the influence of ACEIs on the receptor-peptide complex, and to have a better understanding of the molecular mechanism and structural plasticity of the bradykinin receptor and PAM, we used the three commercially available ACEIs captopril, enalaprilat, and lisinopril for our studies. An important result of this thesis is that though enalaprilat, captopril, and lisinopril all have similar functional properties in humans, each one regulates the orthosteric binding site of hB1R in a unique way. These findings provide atomic insights into the allosteric modulation of the bradykinin receptor. This study along with the effects of ACEI on the binding sites of receptors also deciphers the effects of the Zn2+ as well as the crosstalk between zinc binding sites and ACEI compounds. The binding of allosteric modulators induces distinct endogenous binding, which might aid in creating new possibilities in the pharmaceutical field.