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This paper approaches productivity by considering three case studies: compounds, blends and phrasal verbs. The aim of the paper is to encourage a discussion about the factors involved in the notion of productivity, and to show why so many of the established measures are not completely satisfactory or are interpreted in a way that is not.
It has become commonplace to introduce works on aspect with the remark that there is hardly another field in linguistics so much plagued by terminological and notional confusion. [..] About 20 major books claiming a comprehensive treatment have come to my attention during little more than the past half decade […]. Among these books are five that form the subject of this paper in a narrower sense, given that the present article originally started out as a combined review of these five works: […] Even if one is not at all keen on monocultures, it is clear that the obvious disunity in fundamental points of view makes the situation increasingly difficult for the "ordinary working linguist". It is getting impossible to keep up with the many different issues raised in the theoretical literature when, for instance, writing a chapter on aspect for a descriptive grammar of a language. As a result, a tremendous gap between descriptive and theoretical work has arisen. This has not gone unnoticed in the literature. There are several recent publications in which explicit attempts are made to bridge this gap […], all of them trying to add a typological perspective to aspect theory and to free it from its purely truth-conditional embedding, which was the dominant paradigm in the 70ies and 80ies. But again, these works are often themselves cast into specific theoretical frameworks, more often than not ignoring other approaches to the field if they do not fit their persuasions. I will therefore avail myself of the opportunity of this review article by briefly sorting out the differences in the fundamental assumptions and theoretical primitives of the various approaches, in order to come to grips with the aspectological landscape. A general, chiefly historically oriented assessment is presented in the first part of this paper (see section 1). The second part is then devoted to a detailed discussion of the books under review against the background etablished in this survey (see section 2). At the end, I will try to draw some conclusions and hint at some directions for future work with aspect in a descriptive and/or typological context (see section 3).
There is an inexhaustible stream of theoretical work on aspect. More than 20 major books of a gelteral nature have come out during the past few years, not to mention the vast amount of shorter articles. The theoretical proposals found in these works are often radically different. What is the state of the art in this highly controversial area? To what extent can the "ordinary working linguist" profit from the flood of theoretical proposals? This paper started out as a review article on five recent books on aspect. These reviews are incorporated here into a general assessment of contemporary aspect theories. We will classify different approaches to aspect and try to sort out their theoretical primitives. The paper concludes wich a brief summary pointing out the most urgent desiderata for a typologically adequate approach to aspect.
The purpose of this paper is to describe recent developments in the morphological, syntactic, and semantic annotation of the TüBa-D/Z treebank of German. The TüBa-D/Z annotation scheme is derived from the Verbmobil treebank of spoken German [4, 10], but has been extended along various dimensions to accommodate the characteristics of written texts. TüBa-D/Z uses as its data source the "die tageszeitung" (taz) newspaper corpus. The Verbmobil treebank annotation scheme distinguishes four levels of syntactic constituency: the lexical level, the phrasal level, the level of topological fields, and the clausal level. The primary ordering principle of a clause is the inventory of topological fields, which characterize the word order regularities among different clause types of German, and which are widely accepted among descriptive linguists of German [3, 6]. The TüBa-D/Z annotation relies on a context-free backbone (i.e. proper trees without crossing branches) of phrase structure combined with edge labels that specify the grammatical function of the phrase in question. The syntactic annotation scheme of the TüBa-D/Z is described in more detail in [12, 11]. TüBa-D/Z currently comprises approximately 15 000 sentences, with approximately 7 000 sentences being in the correction phase. The latter will be released along with an updated version of the existing treebank before the end of this year. The treebank is available in an XML format, in the NEGRA export format [1] and in the Penn treebank bracketing format. The XML format contains all types of information as described above, the NEGRA export format contains all sentenceinternal information while the Penn treebank format includes only those layers of information that can be expressed as pure tree structures. Over the course of the last year, more fine grained linguistic annotations have been added along the following dimensions: 1. the basic Stuttgart-Tübingen tagset, STTS, [9] labels have been enriched by relevant features of inflectional morphology, 2. named entity information has been encoded as part of the syntactic annotation, and 3. a set of anaphoric and coreference relations has been added to link referentially dependent noun phrases. In the following sections, we will describe each of these innovations in turn and will demonstrate how the additional annotations can be incorporated into one comprehensive annotation scheme.
Corno quase nenhuma outra disciplina lingüística, a fonologia passou por uma evolução turbulenta nas duas últimas décadas. Ao contrário da abordagem cöássica da Gramática Gerativa, que se concentrou na descrição de cadeias de segmentos fonológicos e de suas transformações em virtude de regras fonológicas, a Fonologia Não-linear colocou as relações prosódicas em enunciados em primeiro plano. A sílaba foi redescoberta como unidade prosódica; muitos trabalhos foram dedicados à análise de estruturas silábicas e de relações de sonoridade. Acima da sílaba, o pé a palavra fonológica foram utilizados como unidades prosódicas relevantes para a descrição das estruturas de acento e entonação. Abaixo da sílaba, reabilitou-se a mora já conhecida a partir da Filologia Clássica. No presente artigo, descrevem-se, a partir de exemplos do alemão e de outras línguas, as duas abordagens principais da Fonologia Não-linear, a Fonologia Autosegmental e a Fonologia Métrica. Procura-se mostrar que, com esses modelos, alguns fenômenos prosódico-fonológicos que antes só podiam ser descritos com grandes dificuldades ou eram até mesmo indescritíveis podem ser analisados de maneira adequada e elegante.
Der vorliegende Aufsatz setzt sich mit einigen Aspekten der didaktisch-methodischen Umsetzung der am 1. August 1998 in Kraft getretenen Neuregelung der deutschen Rechtschreibung im DaF-Unterricht und in der sog. Auslandsgermanistik auseinander. Es wird vor allem auf Fragen der Umstellung unter dem Gesichtspunkt des Lehrens und Lernens von DaF fokussiert und für eine stärkere Berücksichtigung der Rechtschreibdidaktik plädiert.
In this paper I argue in favor of a Matching Analysis for German relative clauses. The Head Raising Analysis is shown to fail to account for parts of the reconstruction pattern in German, especially cases where only the external head is interpreted and the absence of Principle C effects. I propose a Matching Analysis with Vehicle Change and make consistent assumptions about possible deletion operations in relatives so that the entire pattern can be captured by one analysis which therefore proves superior to previous ones.
U radu se račlanjuje odnos reda riječi i negacije u hrvatskome crkvenoslavenskome jeziku. Prvi se vid toga odnosa tiče položaja niječnih izraza ne, ni i bez. U zadanome korpusu oni stoje ispred, odnosno lijevo od jezične jedinice koju niječu. Jedinica ispred koje se niječni izraz nalazi nije nužno glagol, pa ni finitni glagolski oblik. Položaj niječnih izraza povezan je i s razlikom, odnosno s utvrđivanjem razlike između sastavničke negacije, kao negacije nepredikatne sastavnice, i rečenične negacije, negacije predikata. Konačno, o redu riječi ovisi hoće li se ili neće provesti niječno slaganje. U hrvatskome je crkvenoslavenskome jeziku provođenje niječnoga slaganja djelomično (ne i proizvoljno), a ovisi o tome na kojemu se mjestu u rečenici nalazi niječna zamjenica ili prilog.
Iako je riječ o srodnim jezicima sa slobodnim redom riječi, hrvatski i poljski standardni jezik razlikuju se u obveznom redu riječi, između ostalog i u pozicioniranju klitika; hrvatski pokazuje tendenciju slijediti tzv. Wackernagelovo pravilo, dok u poljskom jeziku po tom pitanju vlada puno veća sloboda. U ovom radu iznosim rezultate analize pogrešaka u redu riječi u hrvatskom jeziku koje su u pisanim radovima činili studenti kroatistike s dvaju sveučilišta u Poljskoj. Pretpostavka temeljena na teoriji usvajanja stranog jezika bila je da su pogreške rezultat negativnog prijenosa iz materinskog jezika. No tijekom analize pojavila se potreba za daljnjim i detaljnijim istraživanjem (iako je indikativna, analiza pogrešaka daje tek djelomičan uvid u problematiku) kojim bi se preciznije ustanovili razlozi negativnog prijenosa. Na samom kraju navodim pedagoške implikacije ovog i potencijalnih budućih istraživanja navedene problematike.
Red riječi u smješnicama
(2014)
U radu se promatra i analizira red riječi u rečenici u hrvatskim anonimnim komedijama u prozi nastalim u 17. stoljeću na dubrovačkom području. Rezultati se analize uspoređuju s redom riječi potvrđenim u onodobnom književnom jeziku. Sinkronijskom su prikazu pridružene i usporedbe s rezultatima istraživanja Laznibata o dubrovačkim arhivskim spisima 17. i 18. stoljeća i I. Lovrić Jović o dubrovačkim oporukama iz istog tog razdoblja, dok je dijakronijski pregled napravljen usporedbom s Rešetarovim istraživanjima jezika Ranjinina zbornika i Držićeva jezika, s istraživanjem frančezarija 18. stoljeća I. Lovrić Jović te s Budmanijevim istraživanjem devetnaestostoljetnoga dubrovačkoga govora. Posebna se pozornost posvećuje poretku zanaglasnica, koji je, kao što je bilo očekivano, uglavnom stariji pa zamjenička zanaglasnica prethodi glagolskoj, no ovisno o smješnici, potvrđena su i brojna odstupanja.
Na tragu učenja praške funkcionalne (aktualne) rečenične perspektive o osnovnom i aktualiziranom redu riječi razmatrat će se redoslijed sastavnica u složenim strukturama (subordiniranima i koordiniranima). U prvome redu zanimat će nas poredak surečenica (klauza) u sastavu zavisnosložene rečenice. Postavlja se naime pitanje čime sve može biti uvjetovana anteponiranost zavisne surečenice (tzv. inverzija), i to u različitim tipovima tekstova odnosno komunikacijskim situacijama (npr. u akademskom/ znanstvenom i/ili predavačkom diskursu, potom u privatnim razgovorima itd.). U tu svrhu pozornost ćemo obratiti na primjere poput ovih: Kao što je naslovom najavljeno, bavit ćemo se složenim rečenicama.; Kako bismo ubrzali objavljivanje zbornika, želja nam je što prije skupiti radove.; Kao što je prethodno rečeno, nastava počinje u listopadu.; Ako ne prekineš s glupostima, odlazim!; Dok ne ispraviš jedinice, ništa od izlazaka! i sl. Što se pak nezavisnosloženih rečenica tiče, ponajprije ćemo se suočiti s pitanjem utvrđivanja primarnog redoslijeda sastavnica (Sjedim i razmišljam. ili Razmišljam i sjedim.), da bismo potom pokušali utvrditi moguće razloge remećenja toga redoslijeda (npr. Umro – brao trešnje i pao sa stabla. prema Popeo se, brao trešnje, pao sa stabla, umro.). Naposljetku budući da pristajemo uz gledište da se već složena rečenica može smatrati činjenicom teksta (J. Silić), ali i zbog toga što se aktualizirani red riječi/komponenata ostvaruje upravo u (kon)tekstualno uključenoj rečenici, u svjetlu ćemo novije lingvistike teksta (R. de Beaugrande i W. Dressler) o redoslijedu komponenata promišljati kao o kohezivnom sredstvu.
Red surečenica
(2009)
Pitanje reda surečenica u posljedičnim rečenicama, tj. mogućnost njihova premetanja (obrtanja), jedno je od onih nerijetkih pitanja u hrvatskome jezikoslovlju koje se smatra riješenim, a da se nitko njime nije valjano i sustavno bavio. Jednodušno se i beziznimno naime smatra da je red surečenica u posljedičnim rečenicama (i red surečenica u nekim drugim zavisnosloženim rečenicama) glavna surečenica – zavisna surečenica stalan i neobratljiv. Nije međutim točna tvrdnja da zavisnosložene rečenice za razliku od nezavisnosloženih mogu premetati red surečenica i da to ne vrijedi samo za posljedične i neke druge rečenice. Naime u nekim tipovima posljedičnih i drugih rečenica, pokazuje se to u ovome radu, zavisna surečenica može prethoditi glavnoj, tj. njezine sastavnice mogu zamijeniti mjesta.
Redekommentierende Einschübe
(1996)
Das Thema dieses Aufsatzes sind redekommentierende Einschübe. Zunächst gilt es zu klären, was unter "Einschub" verstanden werden soll. Einschub verwende ich hier weitgehend gleichbedeutend mit Parenthese. Parenthesen werden jedoch manchmal als "Schaltsätze", also als eingeschobene Sätze, definiert. Einschub ist hier ein weniger vorbelasteter Terminus.
U ovome se radu nastoji prikazati položaj nekih promjenljivih i nepromjenljivih nenaglasnica u kajkavskome književnom jeziku i u suvremenim kajkavskim govorima u odnosu na kajkavsku gramatičku normu. Istraživanje nenaglašenih rečeničnih sastavnica u kajkavskome narječju temelji se na rezultatima ankete provedene u svibnju i lipnju 2012. godine na Učiteljskome fakultetu u Zagrebu, Odsjeku u Čakovcu te, prema dijalektološkim kriterijima, na odabranim starijim ispitanicima.
This paper discusses results from a corpus study of German demonstrative and personal pronouns and from a reading time experiment in which we compared the interpretation options of the two types of pronouns (Bosch et al. 2003, 2007). A careful review of exceptions to a generalisation we had been suggesting in those papers (the Subject Hypothesis: "Personal pronouns prefer subject antecedents and demonstratives prefer non-subject antecedents") shows that, although this generalisation correctly describes a tendency in the data, it is quite wrong in claiming that the grammatical role of antecedents is the relevant parameter. In the current paper we argue that the generalisation should be formulated in terms of in-formation-structural properties of referents rather than in terms of the grammatical role of antecedent expressions.
This paper discusses the use of XSLT stylesheets as a filtering mechanism for refining the results of user queries on treebanks. The discussion is within the context of the TIGER treebank, the associated search engine and query language, but the general ideas can apply to any search engine for XML-encoded treebanks. It will be shown that important classes of linguistic phenomena can be accessed by applying relatively simple XSLT templates to the output of a query, effectively simulating the universal quantifier for a subset of the query language.
U radu su prikazani refleksi praslavenskih naglasnih tipova imenica a-deklinacije u mjesnom govoru Dolnje i Gorenje Mraševo, koji pripada skupini dolenjskih narječja slovenskoga jezika. Opisan je i naglasni sustav navedenoga govora s naglaskom na nizu oblika u kojima se pojavljuje postpraslavenski novi cirkumfleks. Povijesnojezična analiza naglasnih tipova imenica a-deklinacije donosi neke važne spoznaje za naglasni sustav slovenskoga jezika. U govoru dolazi do analognoga podudaranja samoglasnika praslavenskoga naglasnog tipa a, s imenicama praslavenskoga naglasnog tipa b i to refleksa imenica s praslavenskim dugim samoglasnikom u jedinom/zadnjem slogu osnove, što je posljedica prenošenja naglaska na dužinu. Novost predstavlja analogija u instrumentalu množine. Kod nekih je imenica praslavenskoga naglasnog tipa c očuvano povlačenje cirkumfleksa na dužinu uz proklitike (mr. na glàːvo, na nùːge). Došlo je također i do podudaranja imenica praslavenskoga naglasnog tipa b, koje imaju u jedinom/zadnjem slogu osnove praslavenski kratki samoglasnik ili poluglas, s imenicama praslavenskoga naglasnog tipa c, koje imaju u jedinom/zadnjem slogu osnove praslavenski kratki samoglasnik ili poluglas.
Die Durchführung kontrastiver Untersuchungen setzt vor allem eine gründliche Beschreibung der zu vergleichenden Sprachen auf der Grundlage eines Grammatikmodells voraus. Kontrastive Arbeiten zum Sprachenpaar Deutsch/Türkisch, die diese Bedingung erfüllen, finden sich nur selten. Das dürfte auf die nur bedingt vergleichbaren Strukturen der besagten Sprachen zurückzuführen sein. Zwar existiert die semantische Kategorie Reflexivum im Deutschen und im Türkischen. In vielen Fällen ist es jedoch nicht möglich, die Existenz eines syntaktischen und semantischen Reflexivums in den beiden Sprachen nachzuweisen. Im folgenden Beitrag soll der Versuch unternommen werden, dieses Problem anhand eines Vergleichs der reflexiven Konstruktionen im Deutschen und im Türkischen zu verdeutlichen.