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Die Beobachtung, dass Tumorzellen häufig eine Abhängigkeit gegenüber einer einzelnen und treibenden Mutation entwickeln, obwohl sie zahlreiche Mutationen aufweisen, bildet die Grundlage der mittlerweile etablierten, zielgerichteten Tumortherapie (Weinstein, 2002). Mit der Identifikation verantwortlicher Signalwege sowie beteiligter Signalkomponenten, sind Ansatzpunkte für diese Therapieform geschaffen worden, die bereits zu einigen Erfolgen in der Leukämie-, Brustkrebs- oder Lungenkrebsbehandlung geführt haben (Druker et al., 2001; Slamon et al., 2001; Kwak et al., 2010) . In vielen Fällen stellt sich jedoch ein Rückfall aufgrund der Ausbildung von Resistenzen ein oder auch das Nichtanschlagen der Therapien wird beobachtet (Ramos & Bentires-Alj, 2015).
Verschiedenste Mechanismen kommen dabei in Frage, doch häufig werden kompensatorische Veränderungen in den Signalwegen beobachtet, die schließlich zur Umgehung der Inhibition führen (Holohan et al., 2013). Grundlage hierfür ist die Redundanz und Verknüpfung der Signalwege mit- und untereinander, die es der Zelle im Sinne der Homöostase ermöglichen sich flexibel an ihre Umgebung anzupassen (Rosell et al., 2013; Sun & Bernards, 2014) . Daher ist es von äußerster Wichtigkeit, die Mechanismen der Inhibition im Hinblick auf die Signalwege der Zellen genauer zu verstehen, und dabei nicht nur die direkten, sondern auch die indirekten Effekte der Inhibition zu analysieren. So lassen sich Rückschlüsse auf den Einsatz zielgerichteter Medikamenten ziehen, die in besseren Therapiekombinationen resultieren und dadurch die Entstehung von Resistenzen verhindern.
Eine Hyper-Aktivierung von STAT3 sowie das dadurch induzierte Genmuster sind als starkes onkogenes Signal identifiziert worden, und spielen darüber hinaus an der Vermittlung von Resistenzen gegenüber Tumortherapien eine entscheidende Rolle. Durch seine Rolle in diversen zellulären Prozessen, beeinflusst STAT3 die Proliferation und das Überleben von Tumorzellen, ihr migratorisches und invasives Verhalten sowie ihre Kommunikation mit Stroma- und Immunzellen. (Bromberg et al., 1999; Wake & Watson, 2015) Sehr selten ist die aberrante Aktivierung des Transkriptionsfaktors auf eigene Mutationen zurückzuführen, vielmehr sorgen Treiber überhalb für diese (Johnston & Grandis, 2011; Kucuk et al., 2015).
In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden verschiedene STAT3-Inhibitionen in unterschiedlichen Modellen verglichen um darüber Rückschlüsse auf Kriterien einer Therapie zu ziehen. In einem Gliommodell aus der Maus, dem eine v-SRC-Expression als Treiber zu Grunde liegt (Smilowitz et al., 2007), wurde eine indirekte, BMX-vermittelte STAT3-Inhibition mit einer zielgerichteten STAT3-Hemmung verglichen. BMX, die zur TEC-Kinase-Familie gehört, wird als STAT3-aktivierende Kinase beschrieben. In letzter Zeit wurde ihr Einfluss bei der Tumorentwicklung immer deutlicher (Dai et al., 2006; Hart et al., 2011; Holopainen et al., 2012). Unter anderem konnte in Glioblastom-Stammzellen eine BMX-vermittelte STAT3-Aktivierung als Treiber für die Selbsterneurungskapazität und das tumorigene Potential identifiziert werden (Guryanova et al., 2011). Mit dem Tyrosinkinase-Inhibitor Canertinib ist es gelungen, in den murinen Tu-2449-Gliomzellen eine BMX-vermittelte STAT3-Aktivierung nachzuweisen und zu inhibieren. Dies ist damit die erste Arbeit, in der Canertinib als BMX-Inhibitor in einem endogenen Zellsystem getestet wurde. Die einmalige Canertinib-Gabe resultierte in einem Zellzyklusarrest der G1-Phase und die Aufrechterhaltung der Inhibitorwirkung im Zelltod. Im Vergleich dazu konnte eine RNAivermittelte STAT3-Stilllegung nicht das Absterben dieser Zellen induzieren. Mit der Suche weiterer Zielstrukturen von Canertinib, die die Grundlage dieser unterschiedlichen Phänotypen bilden, konnte eine zusätzliche AKT-Inhibition identifiziert werden. Sehr wahrscheinlich wird die AKT-Inhibition ebenfalls durch BMX vermittelt, da keine Inhibition der ERBB-Familie bestätigt werden konnte. Um die Effekte weiter abzugleichen wurden Canertinib-Versuche mit einem humanen Brustkrebsmodell durchgeführt, das als Treiber eine Überexpression des EGFR aufweist.
In MDA-MB-468-Zellen, in denen keine BMX-Aktivierung vorliegt, resultierte eine Canertinib-Behandlung in der sehr prominenten Inhibition des ERK-Signalweges und in einer weniger ausgeprägten Verminderung der STAT3- und AKT-Aktivierung. Auch in diesen Zellen führte die Canertinib-Behandlung zum Zelltod. Diese Effekte werden sehr wahrscheinlich durch die Inhibition des EGFR induziert, da Canertinib als pan-ERBBInhibitor beschrieben ist (Slichenmyer et al., 2001; Djerf Severinsson et al., 2011) .
Resultate die früher in der Arbeitsgruppe gewonnen wurden, beweisen, dass eine Herunterregulation von STAT3 in der Brustkrebszelllinie MDA-MB-468 ausreicht um ein Absterben der Zellen zu induzieren (Groner et al., 2008).
Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit zeigen, dass eine Canertinib-Behandlung über die Inhibition unterschiedlicher Signalwege den Zelltod in beiden Zelllinien induziert. Obwohl beide Zelllinien Treiber-vermitteltes, konstitutiv aktives STAT3 aufweisen, stellt nur in den Brustkrebszellen seine Inhibition eine ausreichende Therapiebedingung dar. Somit sind die Unterschiede zwischen den beiden Zelllinien essentiell für ein Überleben der Zellen nach einer STAT3-Inhibition. In Zukunft ist es wichtig, diese Unterschiede zu identifizieren um damit zu definieren, in welchen Patientengruppen eine STAT3-Inhibition zum Erfolg führt.
Die paravertebralen Grenzstränge entwickeln sich aus Neuralleistenzellen des Rumpf- und Lendenbereichs. Diese sammeln sich im Hühnerembryo an Embryonaltag 2,5-3 an der dorsalen Aorta und formen die primären sympathischen Ganglien. Die dorsale Aorta sezerniert Morphogene, welche einen Teil der Vorläuferzellen zur Differenzierung zu Neuroblasten anregt. Die sympathischen Neuroblasten sind, obgleich sie bereits neurale und noradrenerge Marker exprimieren, zur Zellteilung fähig. Sie unterscheiden sich darin von anderen Neuralleistenderivaten wie beispielsweise den Neuronen der parasympathischen Ziliarganglien und der sensorischen Hinterwurzelganglien. Schließlich wandern die primären sympathischen Ganglien weiter und bilden lateral zum Notochord die paravertebralen Grenzstränge (Rohrer, 2011).
Der Homöodomänen-Transkriptionsfaktor PROX1 wird im Laufe der Entwicklung höherer Vertebraten in vielen Geweben exprimiert. Welche Wirkung PROX1 dabei auf Überleben, Migration, Proliferation und Differenzierung hat, hängt davon ab, in welchem Zelltyp er aktiv ist (Dyer et al., 2003; Lavado et al., 2010). Im peripheren Nervensystem konnte PROX1 embryonal in den Hinterwurzelganglien und den sympathischen Ganglien nachgewiesen werden (Becker et al., 2009; Diplomarbeit Julia Holzmann, 2010). Zielsetzung dieser Dissertation war es, die Expression und die Funktion von PROX1 in sympathischen Ganglien von Hühnerembryonen zu analysieren.
Die Expressionsanalyse von PROX1 zeigte, dass der Anteil der PROX1-positiven Neurone an Embryonaltag 5 (E5) ein Maximum erreicht und danach im Laufe der Entwicklung stetig abnimmt. Dies gilt ebenso für die Population der proliferierenden Neuroblasten, welche ebenfalls im Laufe der Hühnerentwicklung erstmals detailliert untersucht wurde. Diese Korrelation führte zu der Vermutung, dass PROX1 hauptsächlich in proliferierenden Zellen exprimiert wird, welche anschließend experimentell bestätigt werden konnte. Die Population der PROX1-positiven und die der p27-negativen Neuroblasten haben in allen untersuchten Hamburger Hamilton-Stadien (HH-St 21-37) eine vergleichbare Größe. Dennoch ist PROX1 durchgehend in einem kleinen Teil der p27-positiven Neurone enthalten. Diese Population verändert sich im Laufe der Entwicklung kaum und das Fluoreszenzsignal eines oder beider Proteine ist bei doppelpositiven Zellen deutlich schwächer. Diese und andere Daten dieser Arbeit weisen darauf hin, dass es sich um Neuroblasten handelt, welche gerade aus dem Zellzyklus austreten. In postmitotischen Neuronen geht PROX1 verloren. Obwohl PROX1 in allen untersuchten HH-Stadien stark in der Population proliferierender Neurone exprimiert wird, zeichnet sich ab E7 eine kleinere Population von Neuroblasten in S-Phase ab, welche kein PROX1 enthalten.
Die Vorläuferzellen von Ziliarganglien werden, ähnlich wie die der sympathischen Ganglien, durch BMP-Proteine zur Differenzierung angeregt (Müller und Rohrer, 2002). Aufgrund der Ähnlichkeiten in der Entwicklung beider Neuralleistenderivate wurde die Expression von PROX1 in dieser Dissertation auch in Ziliarganglien untersucht: Der Transkriptionsfaktor wird dort nur an E4 und E5 vereinzelt in Neuronen exprimiert und nahezu gar nicht in Vorläuferzellen. In späteren HH-Stadien ist PROX1 in Ziliarganglien nicht mehr nachweisbar.
Ebenfalls konnte hier gezeigt werden, dass PROX1 in primären sympathischen Ganglien an E3 (HH-St 21) in Vorläuferzellen exprimiert wird, welche bereits begonnen haben, sich zu Neuroblasten zu differenzieren. Noch bevor die Differenzierung dieser Zellen jedoch abgeschlossen ist, wird PROX1 transient herunterreguliert. Die entstehenden Neuroblasten treten in dieser Phase kurzzeitig aus dem Zellzyklus aus. Da sich die Größe der p27-negativen und der PROX1-positiven Population auch an E3 stark ähnelt, kann man schließen, dass die Zellteilung in den Neuroblasten erst bei erneuter PROX1-Expression wieder aufgenommen wird. Ab E5 ist PROX1 fast ausschließlich in Neuroblasten nachweisbar.
Eine Funktionsanalyse von PROX1 unter Kulturbedingungen und im Hühnerembryo sollte durch Knockdown und Überexpression zeigen, welchen Einfluss der Transkriptionsfaktor auf die Proliferation der Neuroblasten nimmt. Die Manipulation der PROX1-Expression hatte in vitro einen proproliferativen Effekt. In vivo unterschieden sich Knockdown und Überexpression aber nicht von der Kontrolle.
Zusammenfassend wurde in dieser Doktorarbeit die Expression von PROX1 in sympathischen Ganglien von Hühnerembryonen im Detail analysiert. Der Transkriptionsfaktor ist sowohl in Vorläuferzellen als auch in Neuroblasten nur transient vorhanden. Zwar konnte eine klare Korrelation zwischen der Expression von PROX1 und der Proliferation der sympathischen Neuroblasten festgestellt werden, allerdings konnte eine Wirkung von PROX1 auf die Proliferation durch Funktionsanalysen nur teilweise bestätigt werden. Zusammen weisen die Daten darauf hin, dass PROX1 eine Rolle in der Feinregulation der Proliferation spielt.
In the last couple of years the research on natural products concerning ecological questions has gained more and more interest. Especially natural products play an important role for the maintenance of symbiotic relationships.
Here we present the application of the “overlap extension PCR-yeast homologous recombination“(ExRec) to simplify the availability of natural products. We successfully cloned a 45 kb gene cluster and characterized two new peptides ambactin and xenolindicin from Xenorhabdus – the latter derived from a silent gene cluster. ExRec is a very efficient cloning technique and resembles a powerful method regarding the assembly of large gene clusters as well as the cloning from metagenomic libraries or RNA pools.
In addition, we discovered bacterial pyrrolizidine alkaloids from Xenorhabdus, referred to as pyrrolizixenamides. The gene cluster consisted of a NRPS and a hydroxylase encoding gene. Surprisingly, this gene cluster and its variations (type A to D) can be found throughout the bacterial kingdom which might indicate an essential function. While these substances are mainly known to play a role in the defense mechanism of plants, the function of the identified pyrrolizixenamides from Xenorhabdus yet remains unsolved.
Moreover, we firstly identified a phosphopantetheinyl transferase (PPTase) from the lichenized fungus of Evernia prunastri. The gene eppA encoding a Sfp-type PPTase was heterologously expressed in Escherichia coli and Saccharomyces cerevisiae and functional characterized by indigoidine production and complementation of lys5, respectively. All represented results contribute to the elucidation of natural products and thereby to their role in nature with special regard to symbiotic associations.
In order to investigate the diversity of the western honeybee, Apis mellifera L., in West and Central Africa, a total of 204 colonies were sampled from 44 localities in four countries – Nigeria, Niger, Cameroon and Chad. 86 of these colonies, from 23 localities, were subjected to full morphometric analysis. In a principal component analysis (PCA) of the morphometric data, the colonies formed a single cluster. It also revealed that overall size of the body was the most important source of variation between the colonies. A hierarchical structure analysis, followed by a stepwise discriminant analysis, classified the colonies into three distinct morphoclusters; however, these clusters were not geographically demarcated. In another PCA carried out with the samples under investigation and reference samples of A. m. adansonii, A. m. jemenitica and A. m. scutellata, the colonies under investigation again formed one cluster which lying over and extended beyond the clusters of the reference subspecies. This is suggestive of a wider variation in size in the bees under investigation. In a stepwise DA, 94.2% of cross-validated grouped cases were correctly classified and the distances between group centroids were highly significant (p < 0.0005) according to F-statistic. 61 and 22 of the 83 colonies under investigation were assigned to A. m. jemenitica and A. m. adansonii, respectively. Mitochondrial DNA analysis was carried out on 148 colonies from 39 localities. Four mitochondrial haplotypes, previously reported from Africa and belonging to the African mitochondrial lineage, A, were detected: A1 (n = 62), A4 (n = 70), A4' (n = 15) and A14 (n = 1). The overall haplotype diversity was low (h = 0.478 ± S. E. 0.057). A chi-square test for association was conducted between haplotypes and type of vegetation, latitude, longitude, altitude, temperature and rainfall, severally. There was a statistically significant association between haplotype and each of the six variables and the association was strong with latitude, moderate with vegetation and rainfall and weak with the remaining variables. The neighbour-joining, maximum likelihood and maximum parsimony trees, obtained from sequence variation of the cytochrome b gene of mitochondrial DNA, showed that the samples, from the current study, unambiguously clustered with the reference sequences of A. m. scutellata from Kenya, but without showing further subdivision within this sub-Saharan cluster. 133 workers (one per colony) collected from 38 localities were subjected to microsatellite analysis. A total of 292 different alleles were recorded for the 15 microsatellite loci used. All microsatellite loci were polymorphic and the number of different alleles per locus ranged between 10, in locus At163, and 31, in locus A029. Heterozygosity (or gene diversity) was high in all loci. The unbiased expected heterozygosity, which is a better expression of gene diversity, was 0.861 ± S.E. 0.017. The overall FST value, which is a good estimate of genetic differentiation of populations, was very low: 0.007 ± S.E. 0.001 (0.001 - 0.014). AMOVA and Bayesian assignment showed no differentiation of the investigated populations. Based on morphometric analysis, the results of this study present the honeybees of western Africa as a single entity with an internal variation which lacks a geographical demarcation. Consequently the results do not support the splitting of the honeybees of the region into the two subspecies, A. m. adansonii and A. m. jemenitica, as reported in the literature. More morphometric, molecular, physiological and behavioural studies are required to confirm the taxonomic status of the honeybees of the region. Meanwhile, the use of A. m. adansonii, as the sole sub-specific name for the honeybees of West and Central Africa, is recommended.
Fossils are often anatomically and functionally compared to extant model taxa such as Pan, Gorilla, Pongo and modern Homo sapiens to put the respective fossils into the (taxonomical) context of human evolution. Therefore, knowledge of extant hominid anatomy is necessary as well as knowledge of which traits differ between sexes, populations, (sub-)species and taxa, and whether these differences are pronounced enough to separate respective groups. Dental and mandibular structures have been of particular interest in many paleoanthropological studies, simply due to the fact that these morphological structures are most abundant in the human fossil record.
Various studies have addressed questions regarding taxonomy, variation and sexual dimorphism of hominid taxa with regard to dental and mandibular size. Tooth size, however, has almost exclusively referred to crown size, with little focus on root size. The focus on tooth crowns is partly due to roots being embedded in mandibular bone which makes access difficult. With the help of micro-computed tomography (μCT) it is now possible to render virtual 3D models of dental roots and measure these models without harming the original specimens. In addition, measurements are much more precise using μCT data than previous techniques such as 2D x-rays. The present study used 3D models of 231 (first, second and third) molars and 80 mandibles of 53 Pan troglodytes verus (consisting of individuals form the Tai and Liberia populations), 14 Gorilla sp. and 13 Pongo sp. individuals to investigate molar and mandibular sizes within, and between, taxa and populations with regard to sexual dimorphism, variability and taxonomical value. Molar root size was assessed by applying 7 measurements to each molar. Mandibular size was investigated using three different measurements: overall mandibular size, mandibular robusticity (at each molar position) and 15 linear measurements. Overall mandibular size and root measurements were used to investigate the dental and mandibular size relationship. Furthermore, based on data acquired from great apes, how well fossil mandibles (including their dentition) of Australopithecus africanus, Paranthropus sp. and Homo sp. match one or multiple extant hominid taxa was examined Overall, molar root and mandibular metrics are suitable to differentiate between sexes, populations and taxa. Investigation of 40 (21 molar and 19 mandibular) different measure ments resulted in five common characteristics among Pan, Gorilla and Pongo only: firstly, molar root size sequence in root volume and root surface area (M3 < M1 < M2). Secondly, M2 as the molar with the largest cervical area, root volume, root surface area and mesial root lengths and thirdly, mandibular robusticity is larger in females than in males, yet the difference is not signifficant. Fourthly, mandibular length and premolar width are sexually dimorphic and fifthly, the best factors to discriminate between taxa are bicondyle width and molar root length. There is no generalized answer to the question which molar and/or measurement (dental or mandibular) is best to discriminate between sex or taxa in extant hominids. Moreover, size relationships differ among taxa, depending on the measurement. The overall trend, however, is that Pan is the taxa with the smallest, and Gorilla the largest, mean values. Among Pan populations, Liberian chimpanzees tend to have larger average values compared to Tai chimpanzees, with the exception of mandibular robusticity. The highest percentage of sexual dimorphic measurements is found in Pongo, yet only half of the measurements are statistically different between sexes. African apes are less sexually dimorphic compared to Pongo, and surprisingly, Gorilla is only slightly more dimorphic than Pan. The study also shows that statements and conclusions relating to \mandibular size" should not be generalized: whereas male and female Pongo do not differ significantly in overall mandibular size, they do differ in linear mandibular measurements. Moreover, Gorilla has the overall largest mandible, yet robusticity is higher in Pan, as are some linear measurements. Sexual dimorphism in overall mandibular size does not seem to reflect body mass dimorphism, whereas mandibular size appears to be related to body mass. The same was previously proposed for mandibular robusticity, yet Pan, the smallest taxa, has the most robust mandibular corpus (> Gorilla > Pongo). A substantial amount of molar measurements that positively correlate with (overall) mandibular size was found, but in African apes only. This contrasts with former studies which found no, or weak, correlations between dental and mandibular sizes. Given that the percentage of correlation is highest in Pan, and not present in Pongo, it is proposed that small jaws feature small teeth, rather than large jaws feature large teeth. This proposition assumes a size-threshold from which, when reached, dental and mandibular sizes no longer correlate, as has been previously proposed for the relationship between canine size and mandibular breadth. This assumption is further supported by the fact that the smaller and more robust Tai population shows more significant correlation compared to the less robust and larger Liberia population. Results show that fossil metrics are similar to one or multiple extant hominid taxa, depending on the measurement (dental or mandibular) used for comparison. Subsequently, the assignment to a specific sex depends on the earlier selected extant model taxa. Therefore the study questions whether choosing one model taxa for one fossil, or taxonomical group, is advisable. This study is the first to extensively investigate molar root size in extant hominids and to broadly describe differences in molar root sizes among and between taxa and therefore provides a solid database for future studies. The same applies to mandibular robusticity which has not been investigated as systematically or to such a great extent as in this work. The study specifically shows how complex the search for taxa or sex differentiating molar root and/or mandibular measurements is. Subsequently it shows that generalizations in relation to taxonomical values and statements about sexual dimorphism can be misleading.
In addition, the study contributes to the understanding of intra- and inter-population differences within Pan torglodytes verus. Furthermore, it could be demonstrated that results of a subspecies sample very likely depend on the sample composition, i.e. whether the sample consists of individuals from one or more populations. This study serves as a database for further studies investigating molar root sizes in great apes, whether these studies are investigating various relationships between taxa, population or sex, or as database to investigate functional adaptations or to examine mandibular robusticity and molar root relationships.
Bei Untersuchungen HBV-positiver Zellen konnte zunächst, anders als für HCV, eine deutlich gesteigerte Menge an TIP47 im Western Blot nachgewiesen werden. Da außerdem auch die zellulären mRNA-Spiegel von TIP47 erhöht waren, wurde in Promotorstudien der genaue Regulationsmechanismus untersucht. Für HBV sind zwei wichtige Faktoren bekannt, welche diverse zelluläre Signalkaskaden, wie z. B. die c-Raf/MAP-Kinase-Kaskade, modulieren, die PreS2-Aktivatordomäne des LHBsAg und das HBx-Protein [360]. Diese regulieren via c-Raf die Expression der unterschiedlichsten Gene. Nach eingehenden Analysen lässt sich dazu auch TIP47 zählen, dessen Expression durch HBx und LHBs gesteigert werden kann. Außerdem konnte in CLSM-Analysen eine partielle Colokalisation von LHBs und TIP47 beobachtet werden. Durch Modulation der TIP47-Expression in HBV-positiven Zellen konnte anschließend die Relevanz für die Virus-Sekretion untersucht werden. Durch gezielten knockdown von TIP47 durch spezifische siRNAs wurde die Freisetzung von viralen Partikeln gestört, wohingegen die Menge an freigesetzten subviralen Partikeln erhöht war. Die Überexpression von TIP47 hingegen konnte die Virus-Sekretion steigern, während das Niveau der subviralen Partikel nahezu gleich blieb. Des Weiteren konnte auch für HBV die Rab9-Bindung an TIP47 als essentielle Funktion Charakterisiert werden, da eine Inhibition dieser Interaktion eine Hemmung der Sekretion viraler Partikel zur Folge hatte. Auch hier konnte kein Einfluss auf die subviralen Partikel beobachtet werden. In Studien wurde a-Taxilin als neuer Bindungspartner von Proteinen der Syntaxin-Familie entdeckt. Es spielt daher eine wichtige Rolle im intrazellulären Vesikeltransport. Vor allem die Interaktion mit Syntaxin-4 ist gut untersucht [132]. Es wird vermutet, dass a-Taxilin durch die Bindung an freies Syntaxin-4 die v-SNARE-Bildung verhindert und so einen inhibitorischen Effekt auf den vesikulären Transport ausübt. Des Weiteren konnten Untersuchungen beim Hepatitis-B-Virus demonstrieren, dass die Expression von a-Taxilin durch die Virus-Replikation drastisch erhöht ist und die Sekretion der subviralen Partikel, welche mittels Vesikeln aus der Zelle transportiert werden, negativ beeinflusst. Andererseits interagiert a-Taxilin mit dem großen viralen Oberflächenprotein LHBs und dient so als Adapter zwischen LHBs und tsg101 beim ESCRT-vermittelten Export des Virus via MVBs - einem Zusammenschluss aus vielen späten Endosomen [126].Anders als für HBV, welches aktiv die Menge an intrazellulärem a-Taxilin erhöht, konnte in früheren RNA-Expressionsexperimenten mit transgenen Mäusen, welche Leberspezifisch das regulatorische HCV-Protein NS5A produzieren, eine deutlich verminderte Expression von a-Taxilin beobachtet werden [140]. Durch Analysen von Leberzelllysaten im Western Blot konnte dieser Effekt auch auf Proteinebene bestätigt werden. Dieanschließende Analyse HCV-replizierender Zellen in vitro ergab ebenfalls eine verminderte a-Taxilin-Expression und in der Folge eine reduzierte Proteinmenge. Weiterhin konnte diese Arbeit klären, dass HCV via NS5A den a-Taxilin-Promotor negativ beeinflusst und dafür den bereits für NS5A beschriebenen Mechanismus der c-Raf-Modulation nutzt [234]. Darüber hinaus wird a-Taxilin durch HCV destabilisiert, da in HCV-replizierenden Zellen die Proteinhalbwertszeit von a-Taxilin in etwa halbiert war. Der genaue Mechanismus hierfür muss jedoch noch genauer untersucht werden. Es kann aber aufgrund von anderen aktuellen Studien davon ausgegangen werden, dass a-Taxilin höchstwahrscheinlich durch HCV-Strukturproteine abgefangen wird, welche nicht am Aufbau neuer Virionen beteiligt sind. Diese werden dann, zusammen mit dem gebundenen a-Taxilin, im autophagosomalen Kompartiment recycelt. Gestützt wird diese Hypothese durch die Beobachtungen in CLSM-Analysen, dass die HCV- Strukturproteine E1, E2 und Core partiell mit a-Taxilin colokalisieren und auch durch Co-Immunpräzipitationen sowie yeast-2-hybrid-Analysen eine direkte Interaktion nachgewiesen werden konnte. Dabei konnten vor allem für das Core-Protein zwei unterschiedliche Fraktionen nachgewiesen werden, von denen nur die zytoplasmatisch lokalisierte Fraktion mit a-Taxilin colokalisierte, nicht aber mit dem an den lipid droplets gebundenen Core. Neben der Untersuchung der funktionellen Zusammenhänge wurde außerdem die Relevanz von a-Taxilin für den HCV-Lebenszyklus charakterisiert. Dabei wurde die Expression von a-Taxilin moduliert und der Einfluss auf die Freisetzung infektiöser HCV-Partikel untersucht. Durch die Überexpression von a-Taxilin konnte die Sekretion von Virionen verhindert werden, wohingegen die weitere Reduktion der a-Taxilin-Menge mittels spezifischer siRNA zu einer verstärkten Virus-Freisetzung führte. In einem parallel durchgeführten Projekt konnten durch die Modulation von Syntaxin-4 genau gegenteilige Beobachtungen gemacht werden. Demnach verstärkte eine Überexpression von Syntaxin-4 die HCV-Sekretion, während der knockdown zur Inhibition des Prozesses führte. Abschließend lässt sich festhalten, dass im Rahmen dieser Arbeit zwei zelluläre Proteine in Bezug auf die Morphogenese und Sekretion von HBV und HCV näher Charakterisiert wurden, denen zuvor für das jeweils andere Virus eine entscheidende Rolle im viralen Lebenszyklus zugeordnet werden konnte. TIP47 wurde somit als positiver Regulator für die HBV-Sekretion identifiziert, auch wenn die genaue funktionelle Relevanz bzw. der Funktionsmechanismus bisher noch nicht eindeutig geklärt werden konnte. So liegt jedoch der Schluss nahe, dass es nur die Freisetzung der viralen Partikel via MVBs beeinflusst und nicht an der Sekretion der subviralen Partikel beteiligt ist. Für HCV konnte mit a-Taxilin erstmals ein viraler Restriktionsfaktor beschrieben werden, da es entscheidend die Sekretion infektiöser Viruspartikel verhindert. Im Gegenzug hat HCV, durch die Deregulation des Promotors und durch das Abfangen von a-Taxilin, Mechanismen entwickelt, welche diesem restriktiven Effekt entgegen wirken.
Photosynthesis is one of the most vital processes that takes place on Earth. Due to its global significance related to food, energy and material production, photosynthesis research is one of the leading scientific fields in the contemporary world. Particular interest in photosynthesis research is focused on diatoms and as one of the major players of marine phytoplankton, diatoms have a huge impact on global photosynthesis.
Diatoms originated from a secondary endosymbiosis that took place between a putative photosynthetic red algal ancestor and a heterotrophic eukaryote. Secondary endosymbiosis resulted in the formation of chloroplasts with four membranes. Centric diatoms (e.g. Thalassiosira pseudonana or Cyclotella meneghiniana) usually possess many small chloroplasts, while pennates (e.g. Phaeodactylum tricornutum) have several larger ones, or even only one which can occupy half of the cell volume...
The canonical Wnt pathway, also known as Wnt/β-‐catenin pathway, comprises a network of proteins which control diverse developmental and adult processes in all metazoan organisms. The binding of canonical Wnt ligands to a cell surface receptor complex, consisting of frizzled family members and low density lipoprotein receptor-‐ related protein 5 or 6 co‐receptors, triggers a signaling cascade which results in a β-catenin-‐mediated transcriptional activation of different target genes, implicated in cellular proliferation, apoptosis, migration and differentiation. A couple of years ago, several groups including us, iden2fied transient activation of the canonical Wnt-pathway in endothelial cells (ECs) of the developing central nervous system (CNS). In this context, Wnt/β-‐catenin signaling could be demonstrated to be crucial for brain angio genesis as well as for the establishment of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) phenotype in the newly formed vessels.
Gliomas, in particular the glioblastoma (GBM), belong to the group of highly vascularized solid tumors which gain their vascularization due to an angiogenic switch occurring during tumor progression. Interestingly, nuclear localized β-‐catenin could be exclusively detected in the activated endothelium of induced rat gliomas and of human GBM, suggesting a so far unknown and not further characterized involvement of the canonical Wnt pathway in pathological angiogenesis. In order to systematically decipher the precise role of endothelial Wnt/β-‐catenin signaling in tumor angiogenesis, I established
murine GL261 glioma cell lines overexpressing either Wnt1 or Dickkopf (Dkk) 1 in a doxycycline-‐dependent manner, an activator and potent inhibitor of Wnt/β-‐catenin signaling, respectively. In subcutaneous and intracranial transplantations, tumor-derived Wnt1 reduced, while Dkk1 increased GL261 tumor growth without affecting in vitro proliferation, cell cycle or cell death of the established cell lines. Nowadays, it is well accepted that solid tumors are dependent on vascular support allowing them to grow beyond a certain size. In my work I could show that tumor-‐derived Wnt1 targets the tumor vasculature by increasing endothelial Wnt/β-‐catenin signaling, which reduced tumor vessel density and resulted in a more quiescent tumor vasculature. Furthermore, Wnt1-‐expression mediated tight association of smooth muscle cells (SMCs) and pericytes to the tumor endothelium, a phenotype which is unusual for tumor vessels and a described hallmark of tumor vessel normalization. In contrast, inhibition of endothelial Wnt/β-‐catenin signaling by Dkk1 mediated an opposing effect, characterized by endothelial hyper-proliferation and a tumor vasculature with a rough basal lamina distribution and loosely anached mural cells, indicative of a strong angiogenic activity. The described vascular effects in Wnt1-expressing GL261 tumors could be verified by subcutaneous transplantations of a rat glioma cell line constitutively expressing Wnt1. Furthermore, an applied in vivo MatrigelTM plug assay uncovered the reduction in vessel density upon Wnt1 simulation to be tumor cell independent, suggesting an EC-‐autonomous effect. This hypothesis was confirmed by subcutaneous transplantations of parental GL261 cells into mice with genetically generated endothelial β-‐catenin gain-of-function (GOF). The derived GOF tumor from this experiment comprised a quiescent and normalized tumor vasculature and phenocopied the vascular effects observed in Wnt1-expressing tumors.
Our previous work provided evidence that Wnt/β-‐catenin signaling contributes to the BBB phenotype of the developing CNS through the transcriptional regulation of the tight junction protein claudin-‐3. Furthermore, the coverage of pericytes to brain vessels has been described to correlate with BBB integrity. In agreement with these publications, vessels of intracranial Wnt1-‐expressing GL261 tumors retained or regained barrier properties, indicated by a reduced leakage of the tracer Evans blue and endogenous mouse immunoglobulin G and increased junctional localiza2on of the tight junction proteins claudin-‐3, -‐5 and zonula occludens-‐1.
Overall, we detected sustained endothelial Wnt/β-‐catenin signaling to induce a quiescent and normalized tumor vascularization. Interestingly, the Notch signaling pathway has been shown to inhibit the angiogenic tip cell and to promote the quiescent stalk cell phenotype via its ligand Delta-like ligand 4 (Dll4) and the receptors Notch1 and 4. Mechanistically, my work demonstrated for the first time that overactivation of endothelial Wnt/β-‐catenin signaling reactivated expression of Dll4 in the tumor endothelium, which could be shown in vitro to increase Notch signaling and to favor a stalk cell-like gene signature. Furthermore, we uncovered the platelet-derived growth factor subunit B (pdgm) as a novel transcriptional target of Wnt/β-catenin signaling in ECs. Hence endothelial-‐derived PDGF-‐B is known to promote the recruitment of mural cells, the upregulation of this factor might explain the increased SMC/pericyte coverage observed in the tumor vasculature upon sustained endothelial Wnt/β-‐catenin signaling which additionally might promote a cycle of vascular normalization.
Taken together, my work reveals several vascular effects, being mediated by reinforced endothelial Wnt/β-‐catenin signaling during tumor angiogenesis. While a moderate level of canonical Wnt signaling, observed in vessels of human astrocytomas and murine control tumors, is considered to be associated with tumor angiogenesis, dominant activation of this pathway in ECs is shown to limit angiogenesis and to promote a quiescent and normalized tumor vasculature with increased barrier properties. Furthermore, my work discovers pdgm as a novel target of canonical Wnt signaling in ECs.
The work presented in this dissertation therefore not only uncovers the role of endothelial Wnt/β-‐catenin signaling in tumor angiogenesis but additionally reveals this pathway to be a novel modulator in pathological vessel development which might proof to be a valuable therapeutic target for anti-angiogenic and edema glioma therapy.
The biogenesis and function of photosynthetically active chloroplasts relies on the import of thousands of nuclear encoded proteins via the coordinated actions of two multiprotein translocon machineries in the outer and inner envelope membrane. Trafficking of preproteins across the soluble compartment of InterMembrane Space (IMS) is currently envisioned to be facilitated by an IMS complex composed of outer envelope proteins Toc64 and Toc12, a soluble IMS component, Tic22 and an IMS-localized Hsp70. Among them, currently Tic22 is the only component that stands undisputed in terms of its existence. Having two closely related homologs in A. thaliana, their biochemical and functional characterization was still lacking. A critical analysis of Tic22 knockout mutants displayed growth phenotype reminiscent of ppi1, the mutant of Toc33. However, both the genes have similar expression patterns with no clear preference for photosynthetic or nonphotosynthetic tissues, which explained the absence of a detectable phenotype in single mutants. In addition, transgenic complementation study with either of the homolog affirmed the identical localization of both proteins in the IMS which characterizes the two homologs as functionally redundant. Based on the pale-yellow phenotype exhibited by the double mutant plants, an attempt to analyze the import capacity of a stromal substrate in the double mutant revealed threefold reduction when compared to wild-type acknowledging the essential role of Tic22 in the import mechanism. Initially, Tic22 was identified together with another protein, Tic20, which has been heavily discussed as a protein conducting channel in the inner membrane. Despite being characterized, in A. thaliana, two out of four homologs of Tic20 are differentially localized with one being additionally localized in mitochondria and the other, exclusively residing in the thylakoids.
According to in silico analysis, for all the Tic20 proteins, a four-helix transmembrane topology was predicted. Accordingly, its topology was mapped by employing the recently established selfassembling GFP-based in vivo experiments. Astonishingly, the expression of one of the inner envelope localized Tic20 homolog enforces inner membrane proliferation affecting the shape and organization of the membrane. Therefore this study focuses on analyzing the effects of high envelope protein concentrations on membrane structures, which together with the existing results, an imbalance in the lipid to protein ratio and a possible role of signaling pathway regulating membrane biogenesis is discussed.
ß1-integrins are essential for angiogenesis but the mechanisms regulating integrin function in endothelial cells (EC) and their contribution to angiogenesis remain elusive. BRAG2 is a guanine nucleotide exchange factor for the small Arf-GTPases Arf5 and Arf6. The role of BRAG2 in EC and angiogenesis and the underlying molecular mechanisms remains unclear. siRNA-mediated BRAG2-silencing reduced EC angiogenic sprouting and migration. BRAG2-siRNA-transfection differentially affected a5ß1- and aVß3-integrin function: specifically, BRAG2-silencing increased focal/fibrillar adhesions and EC adhesion on ß1-integrin-ligands (fibronectin and collagen), while reducing the adhesion on the aVß3-integrin-ligand, vitronectin. Consistent with these results, BRAG2-silencing enhanced surface expression of a5ß1-integrin, while reducing surface expression of aVß3-integrin. Mechanistically, BRAG2 mediated recycling of aVß3-integrins and endocytosis of ß1-integrins and specifically of the active/matrix bound a5ß1-integrin present in fibrillar/focal adhesions (FA), suggesting that BRAG2 contributes to the disassembly of FA via ß1-integrin-endocytosis. Arf5 and Arf6 are promoting downstream of BRAG2 angiogenic sprouting, ß1-integrin-endocytosis and the regulation of FA. In vivo silencing of the BRAG2-orthologues in zebrafish embryos using morpholinos perturbed vascular development. Furthermore, in vivo intravitral injection of plasmids containing BRAG2-shRNA reduced pathological ischemia-induced retinal and choroidal neovascularization. These data reveals that BRAG2 is essential for developmental and pathological angiogenesis by promoting EC sprouting through regulation of adhesion by mediating ß1-integrin internalization and associates for the first time the process of ß1-integrin endocytosis with angiogenesis.
Evolutionary genetics of bears and red foxes over phylogenetic and phylogeographic time scales
(2014)
Climatic fluctuations during the Pleistocene (2.6-0.01 million years) have played an important role during evolution of many species. Cyclic range contractions and expansions had demographic consequences within species, provided environmental conditions for population divergence and speciation and enabled secondary contact and interspecific hybridization. These and other evolutionary processes have left genetic signatures in the genomes of affected organisms. Comprehensive and unbiased estimates of evolutionary processes can be obtained using genetic markers from different parts of the genome and by integrating population genetic and phylogenetic concepts.
Suitable for studies on evolutionary processes and patterns over different evolutionary time scales are bears (Ursidae) and foxes (Vulpes), which occupy a wide range of habitats and evolved during the past few millions of years. In my thesis, I therefore used bears and red foxes as study species to investigate the genetic variation within and between species and to obtain estimates of evolutionary relationships and divergence times of populations and species that I interpreted in a climatic context. Further, I investigated population genetic processes during the evolution of bears. My thesis includes three publications and one submitted manuscript, spanning different evolutionary time scales - from evolutionary relationships and processes among species (phylogenetic time scales, Publications I & II), among populations and closely related species in a geographical context (phylogeographic time scales, Publications II & III), to ongoing processes within species (population genetic time scales, Publication IV).
In Publication I (Kutschera et al. 2014, Mol Biol Evol 31(8):2004-2017), I studied bears at several nuclear markers from several individuals per species, complemented with markers from the Y chromosome. Using approaches based on a population genetic concept (coalescent theory) I obtained a species tree with divergence time estimates. Further, I studied two evolutionary processes in bears, interspecific gene flow and incomplete lineage sorting (ILS). This study contributed to the growing evidence that population genetic processes can be relevant on time scales up to several millions of years.
In Publication II (Hailer, Kutschera et al. 2012, Science 336(6079):344-347), we complemented previous mitochondrial (mt) DNA-based inference of the evolutionary history of polar and brown bears with nuclear DNA. Coalescence-based species tree analyses of multiple nuclear markers from several individuals per species placed polar bears as sister lineage to brown bears and their divergence time to about 600 thousand years ago (ka). This contrasted previous mtDNA-based inference. We explained this discrepancy between mtDNA and nuclear DNA with interspecific gene flow between polar and brown bears.
In Publication III (Kutschera et al. 2013, BMC Evol Biol 13:114), I studied range-wide phylogeographic events and their timing in red foxes. A synthesis of newly generated and published mtDNA sequences was analyzed using a coalescence-based approach with multiple fossil calibration points. Thereby, I validated the identity and geographic distribution of several red fox lineages and showed that red foxes colonized North America and Japan several times independently during the late Pleistocene (126-11 ka) and around the last glacial maximum (26.5-19 ka). In a comparison of my results from red foxes to brown bears and grey wolves, I identified similar phylogeographic patterns.
In Publication IV (Kutschera et al., submitted to Biol Conserv), I found similar levels of genetic variability in vagrant polar bears that had reached Iceland compared to established subpopulations from across the range. Based on climate projections reported by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change in 2014, polar bear habitat will markedly decline and become increasingly fragmented within the next decades. Dispersal will play an important role by connecting isolated subpopulations, thereby maintaining genetic diversity levels. My results indicate that vagrants could stabilize genetic variability when immigrating into established subpopulations.
In conclusion, my thesis provided a deeper understanding of evolutionary genetic processes and patterns and their timing in bears and red foxes in a climatic context, which can have conservation implications. Further, I showed that processes like ILS and interspecific gene flow can be relevant over different time scales and are important aspects of evolutionary history. Thereby, my thesis contributed to the knowledge on the evolutionary history of several carnivore species and on evolutionary processes acting within and between closely related species.
Cell-cell adhesion is an essential process during the development of multicellular organisms. It is based on various cellular junctions and ensures a tight contact between neighboring cells, enabling interactive exchanges necessary for morphological and functional differentiation and maintaining the homeostasis of healthy tissue organization. Two important types of cell-cell adhesions are the adherens junction (AJ) and the desmosome which link the actin cytoskeleton and intermediate filaments to cadherin-based adhesion sites. The core of these structures is composed of single-span transmembrane proteins of the cadherin superfamily which include, among other members, the classical cadherins, e.g. E-cadherin, as well as the desmosomal cadherins, e.g. desmoglein-3. The cytoplasmic domains of the desmosomal and classical cadherins enable interactions with proteins of the catenin family. Classical cadherins preferentially associate with β-catenin and p120-catenin, whereas desmosomal cadherins bind to γ-catenin and plakophilins. Intriguingly, γ-catenin, also known as plakoglobin, is so far the only protein known to be present both in the AJ and the desmosome.
In this study, we showed that the two homologous, membrane raft-associated proteins flotillin-1 and flotillin-2 associate with core proteins of the AJ and the desmosome in vitro and in vivo. In confluent human, non-malignant epithelial MCF10A cells and human skin cryosections, flotillin-2 colocalized with E-cadherin, desmoglein-3 and γ-catenin at cell-cell contact sites, whereas flotillin-1 showed barely any overlap with these proteins. In addition, we detected a colocalization of both flotillins with the actin-binding protein α-actinin in membrane ruffles in subconfluent and at cell-cell contact sites in confluent MCF10A cells as well as in human skin cryosections. The interaction with α-actinin was later shown to be flotillin-1 dependent by performing indirect GST pulldown experiments with purified α-actinin-1-GST in MCF10A cell lysates.
Since flotillin-2 strongly colocalized with cell-cell junctions, this suggested that flotillins might be found in complex with cell adhesion proteins. Thus, we performed coimmunoprecipitation experiments in murine skin lysates and various cell lines of epithelial origin, such as human breast cancer MCF7 cells, human keratinocyte HaCaT cells and primary mouse keratinocytes. These experiments demonstrated that flotillins, especially flotillin-2, coprecipitated with E-cadherin, desmosomal cadherins and γ-catenin in relation to the respective cell type and the maturation status of these cell-cell adhesion structures. However, since γ-catenin is so far the only protein known to be present in the AJ and the desmosome, we further assumed that the complex formation of flotillins with cell adhesion structures is mediated by γ-catenin. For this, we performed indirect GST pulldown experiments in MCF10A cell lysates with bacterially expressed, purified flotillin-1-GST, flotillin-2-GST and γ-catenin-GST and were able to verify the complex formation of adhesion proteins and flotillins in vitro. To further test if the interaction of γ-catenin and flotillins is a direct one, we used purified flotillin-1-GST or flotillin-2-GST and γ-catenin-MBP fusion proteins. Both flotillins directly interacted with γ-catenin in this in vitro assay. In addition, mapping of the interaction domains in γ-catenin by using GST fusion proteins carrying different parts of γ-catenin suggested that flotillins bind to a discontinuous γ-catenin binding domain which consists of a Major determinant around ARM domains 6-12, most likely with a major contribution of the ARM domain 7, and possibly including the NT part of γ-catenin.
To study the effect of flotillin depletion on cell-cell adhesion, we generated stable MCF10A cell lines in which flotillins were knocked down by means of lentiviral shRNAs. Staining of E-cadherin and γ-catenin in these cells showed that the localization at the cell-cell borders was significantly altered after flotillin-2 depletion, which pointed to a role for flotillin-2 in the formation of cell-cell adhesion structures in epithelial cells. Furthermore, isolation of detergent resistant membranes (DRMs) from these cells demonstrated that upon depletion of flotillin-2, a significant amount of E-cadherin and γ-catenin shifted into raft fractions. On the contrary, no change was detected in flotillin-1 knockdown cells. These observations point to a functional role of flotillin-2 in the regulation of raft association of cell-cell adhesion proteins. To gain more insight into the in vivo relevance of our findings, we next studied the function of flotillins in the skin of Flot2-/- knockout mice. Analysis of lysates prepared from the skin of one year old female animals revealed an increased expression of E-cadherin, desmoglein-1 and γ-catenin but not β-catenin, implicating that specific adhesion proteins are upregulated in flotillin-2 knockout skin.
Since flotillins are tightly associated with membrane microdomains we next studied the interaction of flotillin-2 with membrane cholesterol. Using the photoreactive cholesterol analog azocholestanol, we were able to show that flotillin-2 and cholesterol directly interacted. In addition, previous studies speculated that flotillin-2 interacts with cholesterol via two putative cholesterol recognition/interaction amino acid consensus (CRAC) motifs. Analysis of the flotillin-2 sequence revealed that flotillin-2 actually contains four putative CRAC motifs. However, using various flotillin-2 CRAC mutant GFP fusion proteins, we were able to show that none of the putative CRAC motifs is functional, which suggested that flotillin-2 interacts with membrane cholesterol, e.g., via posttranslational modifications, such as myristoylation and palmitoylation which were previously shown to be essential for membrane association of flotillin proteins.
Nervous system development requires a sequence of processes such as neuronal migration, the development of dendrites and dendritic spines and the formation of synapses. The extracellular matrix protein Reelin plays an important role in these processes, Reelin regulates for example the migration of neurons from proliferative zones to their target positions in the brain. As a consequence, layered structures are formed in the neocortex, the hippocampus and cerebellum (Lambert de Rouvroit et al., 1999). Reelin exerts its functions by binding to two transmembrane receptors, apolipoprotein E receptor 2 (ApoER2) and very-low-density lipoprotein receptor (VLDLR). This binding causes phosphorylation of the intracellular adapter protein Disabled-1 (Dab1) (D’Arcangelo et al., 1999) via activation of Src-family kinases (SFKs) (Bock and Herz, 2003), leading to cytoskeletal reorganization which enables cell migration and morphological changes (Lambert de Rouvroit and Goffinet, 2001). Since ApoER2 and VLDLR do not possess intrinsic kinase activity to activate SFKs, the existence of a co-receptor was suggested. EphrinBs are transmembrane ligands for Eph receptors and have signaling capabilities required for axon guidance (Cowan et al., 2004), dendritic spine maturation (Segura et al., 2007) and synaptic plasticity (Essmann et al., 2008; Grunwald et al., 2004). As stimulation of cultured cortical neurons with soluble EphB receptors causes recruitment of SFKs to ephrinB-containing membrane patches and SFK activation (Palmer et al., 2002), we investigated whether ephrinB ligands would be the missing co-receptors in the Reelin signaling pathway functioning during neuronal migration, dendritic spine maturation and synaptic plasticity. We found that the extracellular part of ephrinBs directly binds to Reelin and that ephrinBs interact with Dab1, phospho-Dab1, ApoER2 and VLDLR. EphrinB3 is localized in the same neurons as ApoER2 and Dab1 in the cortex and hippocampus, and in the cerebellum ephrinB2 is detected in neurons that express Dab1. To investigate the requirement of ephrinBs for neuronal migration, triple knockout mice lacking all ephrinB ligands were analyzed. The cortical layering of ephrinB1, B2, B3 knockout brains is inverted, showing the outside-in pattern typical for the reeler cortex. The hippocampus and cerebellum of triple knockout mice also exhibit reeler-like malformations, although less penetrant than the cortical defects. Dab1 phosphorylation is impaired in mice lacking ephrinB3 and this effect is strongly enhanced in neurons lacking all ephrin ligands. Moreover, activation of ephrinB3 reverse signaling induces Dab1phosphorylation in reeler primary neurons. In agreement with an important regulatory function of ephrinBs in Reelin signaling, activation of ephrinB3 reverse signaling is even able to rescue reeler defects in cortical layering in organotypic slice cultures. In summary, all these results identify ephrinBs as co-receptors for Reelin signaling, playing essential roles in neuronal migration during the development of cortex, hippocampus and cerebellum (Sentürk et al., 2011).
The midbrain DA system comprising dopamine (DA) neurons of the substantia nigra (SN) and the ventral tegmental area (VTA) is involved in various brain functions, including voluntary movement and the encoding and prediction of behaviorally relevant stimuli. In Parkinsonʼs disease (PD), a progressive degeneration of particularly vulnerable SN DA neurons causes a progressive DA depletion of striatal projection sites. As a consequence, motor symptoms such as tremor, hypokinesia and rigidity appear once about 50 % to 70 % of SN DA neurons have been lost. Under physiological conditions, SN DA neurons can encode behaviorally salient events and coordinated movements through tonic and phasic activity and correlated striatal DA release. Burst-activity mediates a phasic, supralinear rise of striatal DA levels and allows to activate coordinated movements via modulation of corticostriatal signals.
In the present dissertation project, pathophysiological adaptations of surviving SN DA neurons after a partial degeneration of the nigrostiatal system have been studied using a 6-hydroxydopamine mouse model of PD. Combining in vivo retrograde tracing techniques with in vitro whole-cell patch-clamp recordings, multifluorescent immunolabeling and confocal microscopy allowed an unambiguous correlation of electrophysiological phenotypes, anatomical positions and neurochemical phenotypes of recorded neurons on a single-cell level. In vitro, neuronal activity of SN DA neurons is characterized by spontaneous, slow pacemaker activity of 1 to 10 Hz and a high degree of spike-timing precision. In vitro current-clamp recordings of surviving SN DA neurons using acute brain slice preparations after a partial, PD-like degeneration of the nigrostriatal DA system showed a significant perturbation of spontaneous pacemaker activity, mirrored by a decreased spike-timing precision compared to controls. Selective pharmacology and whole-cell voltage-clamp recordings served to identify calciumactivated SK channels as molecular effectors of a perturbated pacemaker activity of surviving SN DA neurons. SK channels and have been shown to critically contribute to the spike-timing precision of SN DA neurons. Consistently, in vitro current-clamp recordings after pharmacological blockade of SK channels in vitro caused a significant decrease of spike-timing precision, occluding previously observed differences between surviving SN DA neurons and controls.In addition to in vitro patch-clamp recordings, extracellular single-unit recordings in anaesthetized animals in vivo served to study surviving SN DA neurons embedded in an intact neuronal network after a partial, PD-like degeneration of the nigrostriatal DA system. Combining in vivo single-unit recordings, juxtacellular neurobiotin labeling and multifluorescent immunohistochemistry allowed to directly correlate electrophysiological and neurochemical phenotypes as well as anatomical positions on a single-cell level. In vivo, surviving SN DA neurons showed a significant decrease of spike-timing precision as reflected by an increased irregularity and an augmented burst activity compared to controls.
The present dissertation project provided a unique combination of a neurotoxicological PD mouse model, retrograde tracing techniques and in vitro as well as in vivo electrophysiologiy, allowing to unambiguously correlate electrophysiological adaptations, projection-specific anatomical positions and neurochemical phenotypes of SN DA neurons after a partial degeneration of the nigrostriatal system. Surviving SN DA neurons exhibited a significant deficit of SK channel activity after a partial degeneration of the nigrostriatal DA system. In consequence of a diminished SK channel activity observed in vitro, surviving SN DA neurons exhibited and enhanced burst activity in vivo, providing a plausible mechanism to compensate a striatal DA depletion.
BMPs control postnatal dendrite growth and complexity in sympathetic neurons / von Afsaneh Majdazari
(2012)
The vertebrate nervous system is a complex network of billions of neurons connected by dendrites and axons, integrated to functional circuits and areas/organs in the central and peripheral nervous system. The cells of the nervous system origin from common progenitors, which take on different cell fates based on intrinsic and extrinsic factors. These factors determine general neuronal traits, but also the morphology and the type of connections made to other cells. Mechanisms underlying axonal and dendritic growth are well described in contrast to the initiation of neurite growth, which remains to be fully elucidated, especially concerning dendrite formation. Recently BMPs have been identified as candidate dendrite inducing factors in sympathetic, cortical and hippocampal neurons. Here we focus on the in vivo role of BMPs on dendrite growth in sympathetic neurons as their development and differentiation processes have been analyzed in detail.
Prokaryotische Organismen werden in ihrer natürlichen Umgebung mit schwankenden Umwelteinflüssen konfrontiert oder müssen gegebenenfalls extremen Bedingungen standhalten. Um sich an derartige Veränderungen anpassen zu können und damit ein weiteres Überleben zu sichern, ist es wichtig neue genetische Informationen zu akquirieren. Die molekulare Basis dieser Anpassung sind Genmutationen, Genverlust, intramolekulare Rekombination und/oder horizontaler Gentransfer. Der vorliegende Selektionsdruck der Umwelt begünstigt schlussendlich die Spezialisierung und damit die Erschließung neuer Standorte aufgrund des Erwerbs neuer metabolischer Eigenschaften, Resistenzgene oder Pathogenitätsfaktoren. Vergleichende Analysen bakterieller Genome, welche auf Analysen der GC-Gehalte, der Codon- und Aminosäurenutzung und der Genlokalisation beruhen, zeigten, dass bei diesem evolutiven Prozess bzw. der Weiterentwicklung der bakteriellen Genome der horizontale Gentransfer als treibende Kraft eine entscheidende Rolle spielt. So indizieren Genomstudien, dass 0-22% der gesamten bakteriellen und 5-15% der archaeellen Gene horizontal erworben wurden, wobei der DNA-Transfer nicht ausschließlich zwischen Vertretern einer Domäne, sondern ebenfalls zwischen Organismen unterschiedlicher Domänen stattgefunden hat. So sind z.B. 24 bzw. 16% der Gene von Genomen hyperthermophiler Organismen wie Thermotoga maritima oder Aquifex aeolicus archaeellen Ursprungs. Ebenso finden sich Gene für Chaperone und DNA-Reparaturenzyme im Genom des thermophilen Bakteriums Thermus thermophilus wieder, welche wahrscheinlich ebenfalls durch horizontalen Gentransfer aus hyperthermophilen und archaeellen Genomen erworben wurden um eine Anpassung an extreme Standorte zu ermöglichen. Durch vergleichende Genomstudien wurde ebenfalls festgestellt, dass die durch horizontalen Gentransfer erworbenen Gene oftmals zu einer Neuorganisation von Transkriptionseinheiten und zu einer veränderten Genomorganisation führten. Dennoch finden sich immer wieder Beispiele von horizontal erworbenen Operonen in den verschiedenen Organismen. Gut charakterisierte Vertreter horizontal übertragener Operone sind dabei z.B. das archaeelle H+-ATPase-Operon, das Operon der Na+-translozierenden NADH:Ubichitonoxidoreduktase oder das Nitratreduktase-Operon.
Man unterscheidet bei dem horizontalen Gentransfer zwischen drei Mechanismen der DNAAufnahme: Konjugation, Transduktion und Transformation. Die DNA-Übertragung durch Konjugation ist durch einen spezifischen Zell-Zell-Kontakt definiert, der durch einen von der Donorzelle ausgehenden, sogenannten F-Pilus hergestellt wird. Die Donorzelle überträgt schließlich Plasmid-kodierte genetische Informationen und oftmals Eigenschaften für die eigenständige Konjugation auf eine Rezipientenzelle. Die Transduktion hingegen beschreibt die DNA-Übertragung von Bakteriophagen auf eine Wirtszelle, wobei hier eine hohe Wirtsspezifität Voraussetzung ist. Die Übertragung der DNA von einer Bakterienzelle in eine andere erfolgt dabei ohne Kontakt der Zellen. Die natürliche Transformation ist definiert als Transfer von freier DNA und ermöglicht damit im Gegensatz zu den beiden ersten spezifischen Mechanismen der DNA-Übertragung ein größeres Spektrum der Verbreitung genetischer Informationen. Freie DNA, welche entweder durch Zelllyse oder Typ-IVSekretion ausgeschieden wird und aufgrund von Adsorption an mineralische Oberflächen über längere Zeiträume stabil in der Umgebung vorliegen kann, kann unter der Voraussetzung der Existenz eines speziellen Aufnahmesystems von Bakterien aufgenommen werden. Mittlerweile sind über 44 Bakterien aus unterschiedlichen taxonomischen Gruppen beschrieben, die eine natürliche Kompetenz ausbilden können. Die bekanntesten Beispiele für natürlich transformierbare Gram-negative Bakterien sind Heliobacter pylori, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Pseudomonas stutzeri, Haemophilus influenzae, T. thermophilus und Acinetobacter baylyi. Auch unter den Gram-positiven Bakterien finden sich einige Vertreter, die natürlich kompetent sind, wie Deinococcus radiodurans, Bacillus subtilis und Streptococcus pneumoniae. Ungeachtet der relevanten Rolle der Transformation im horizontalen Gentransfer, ist über die Struktur und Funktion der komplexen DNA-Aufnahmesysteme wenig bekannt.
Due to recent technical developments, it became evident that the mammalian transcriptome is much more complex than originally expected. Alternative splicing(AS) and the transcription of long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are two phenomenas which have been greatly underestimated in their frequency. Nowadays it is accepted that almost every gene has at least one alternative isoform and the number of lncRNAs exceeds the one of protein-coding genes.
We built user-friendly web interfaces which can process Affymetrix GeneChip Exon 1.0 ST Arrays (exon arrays) and GeneChip Gene 1.0 ST Arrays (gene arrays)for the analysis of alternative splicing events. Results are presented with detailed annotation information and graphics to identify splice events and to facilitate biological validations. Based on two studies using exon arrays, we show how our tools were used to profile genome-wide splicing changes under silencing of Jmjd6 and under hypoxic conditions. Since gene arrays are not intended for AS analysis originally, we demonstrated their applicability by profiling alternative splicing events during embryonic heart development.
To measure lncRNAs expressions with exon arrays, we completely re-annotation all probes and built a lncRNA specific annotation. To demonstrate the applicability of exon arrays in combination with our annotation, we profiled the expression of tens of thousands of lncRNAs. Further, our custom annotation allows for a detailed inspection of lncRNAs and to distinguish between isoforms, as we validated by RTPCR.
To allow for a general usage to the research community, we integrated the annotation in an easy-to-use web interface, which provides various helpful features for the analysis of lncRNAs.
Struktur-Funktionsbeziehungen des Verpackungschaperons Gsf2 in der Hefe Saccharomyces cerevisiae
(2007)
Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde die Funktion des in der Membran des Endoplasmatischen Retikulum lokalisierten Proteins Gsf2 der Hefe Saccharomyces cerevisiae näher charakterisiert. Gsf2 ist ein 46 kDa großes ER-Transmembranprotein mit zwei membrandurchspannenden Domänen, wobei C- und N-Terminus cytosolisch orientiert sind. Zudem besitzt Gsf2 C-terminal ein klassisches Dilysin-Motiv. Eine Deletion des GSF2-Gens resultiert in einer Retention der Hexosetransporter Hxt1, Hxt3 und Gal2 im ER, so dass es sich bei Gsf2 möglicherweise um ein Hexosetransporterspezifisches Verpackungschaperon handelt.
Um Sequenzbereiche zu determinieren, die für die Funktion des Verpackungschaperons bezüglich der Reifung und des ER-Transportes von Hxt1 notwendig sind, wurden verkürzte Versionen des Gsf2-Proteins hergestellt. Die funktionelle Analyse zahlreicher verkürzter Versionen ergab die Lokalisation eines essentiellen Sequenzbereiches in den hinteren 40 Aminosäuren der carboxyterminalen Domäne des Gsf2-Proteins.
Vorläufige genetische und biochemische Untersuchungen hatten ergeben, dass Gsf2 mit Komponenten der Ribosomen, des Sec61-Translokationsapparates und mit Proteinen der COPII-Vesikel interagiert.
Mit Hilfe des Split-Ubiquitin Systems konnte in der vorliegenden Arbeit eine direkte Interaktion zwischen Gsf2 und dem Sec61-Translokations-Komplex und den Komponenten des sekretorischen Weges Sec12 und Sar1 bestimmt werden. Sec12 ist ein Sar1-spezifischer Guanin-Nucleotid-Austausch-Faktor, der für die Aktivierung von Sar1 benötigt wird. Sar1 ist ein kleines G-Protein, welches für die Initiation der COPII-Vesikelbildung benötigt wird. Sar1 ist aber auch für die Erkennung di-basische ER-Exportsignale spezifischer Cargo-Proteine zuständig. Diese Interaktion weist daraufhin, dass Gsf2 über solch ein Motiv verfügt und somit die Verpackung von Hxt1 in COPII-Vesikel gewährleisten könnte.
Postuliert wird ein Modell, wonach Gsf2 bereits eine wichtige Funktion bei der Translokation des Hexosetransporter Hxt1 in die ER-Membran übernimmt. Dabei interagiert Gsf2 mit dem Sec61-Translokon, um den Reifungsprozess der naszierenden Polypeptidkette des Metabolittransporters zu ermöglichen. Anschließend rekrutiert Gsf2 das gefaltete Proteine an Exit-Sites des Endoplasmatischen Retikulums. Es interagiert dort mit Sec12 und Sar1, so dass Gsf2 zusammen mit dem Hexosetransporter in die COPII-Vesikel verpackt und zum Golgi-Apparat transportiert wird. Aufgrund des ERRetentionssignals wird Gsf2 über COPI-Vesikel recycelt.
Dieses Modell impliziert, dass Hxt1 über kein ER-Exportsignal verfügt und daher Gsf2 als guide eine ausschlaggebende Funktion bei dessen Translokation übernimmt.
Life-attenuated measles virus (MV) vaccines have revealed their capacity to routinely induce life-long immunity against MV after just a single or two low-dose injections. Moreover, MV vaccines have been shown to be extensively safe and well tolerated, in general. Thus, MV is a prime candidate for a recombinant vaccine platform to protect also against other pathogens after vaccination. For this purpose, foreign genes can be inserted into additional transcription units (ATU) in recombinant MV genomes so that the encoded foreign proteins are co-expressed with MV proteins in infected cells. These so-called bivalent MV should protect against infection by MV or the pathogen, which the encoded foreign protein had been derived from. Bivalent MVs have already been shown to be effective vaccines against e.g. dengue virus or hepatitis B virus infections by inducing humoral and sometimes also cellular immune responses. In most of these studies, soluble or soluble versions of the pathogens' antigens were used for generation of bivalent MVs.
We hypothesized that the form of the antigen expressed by bivalent MVs is crucial for the potency and constitution of the induced immune responses. Therefore, three different forms of an antigen expressed by bivalent MVs were analyzed, here. The model antigen chosen for this purpose has been the envelope protein (Env) of SIVsmmPBj1.9. In its natural mature form, Env is composed of the surface unit gp120 and the transmembrane unit gp41, which stay non-covalently linked after proteolytic processing of the common precursor protein gp160. However, gp120 can be shed by infected cells or virus particles. Therefore, natural gp160 antigen was used as shedding form. Furthermore, stabilized covalently-linked gp160 variants and soluble gp140 variants were used in this thesis. These different antigen forms were inserted either behind the P or behind the H expression cassettes into the MV genome. The respective bivalent MVs were rescued and characterized. Expression of SIVsmmPBj1.9 Env variants by the bivalent MVs was confirmed by immuno blot and in situ immunoperoxidase assays. Replication curves of bivalent MV showed that growth of MVs expressing the different Env variants was slightly delayed by approximately 24 h compared to control viruses.
For immunization of transgenic, MV-susceptible IFNAR-/--CD46Ge mice, which are the current standard to analyze MV vaccines in a small animal model, an optimal dose of 1x105 TCID50 was determined. For the evaluation of humoral immune responses in transgenic mice, two ELISA systems for the detection of total α-MV and α-SIV antibodies and neutralization assays for detection of neutralizing antibodies against MV and SIV in sera of immunized mice were established. Mice immunized with any of the bivalent MVs showed significant humoral immune responses against MV comparable to those elicited by the parental MV vaccine strain without further genetic modifications. Mice immunized with MVvac2-gp140(P) expressing the soluble gp140 variant revealed highest α-SIV titers with a maximal OD of up to 0.4. Second highest levels of α-SIV antibodies were detected in mice that were immunized with the shedding variants or soluble Env in other positions. MVs expressing the stabilized variants induced only very low α-SIV antibody titers. Neutralizing antibodies directed against SIV could be detected in sera of mice immunized with MVs expressing the soluble or shedding variants, but not in sera of mice immunized with MVs expressing the stabilized variants. In sera of control mice immunized with PBS no antibodies could be detected, as expected. Thus, soluble and shedding antigens induced humoral immune responses, whereas stabilized antigens induced only weak humoral immune responses but no neutralizing antibodies. Analysis of cellular immune responses is still ongoing.
Besides Env, further SIV antigens could be tested for their potency to induce humoral as well as cellular immune responses.
Besides being used as a vaccine platform, recombinant MVs are evaluated as future agent for cancer therapy due to their significant inherent tumor-lytic, so-called oncolytic activity. Currently, the anti-tumoral activity of MV is analyzed in clinical phase I trials. MV strains with high fusion activity are used as oncolytic agents. The fusion protein F of MV strain NSe is highly fusogenic, in contrast to e.g. F of MVwt323, a clone of the pathogenic strain IC-B. Sequence analysis of these two proteins identified one coding nucleotide difference at aa 94 in the F2 domain: a valine (V) in FNSe and a methionine (M) in Fwt323. To evaluate impact of this difference, residues at aa 94 were exchanged. After transient-transfection of MV F and H expression plasmids in receptor-positive cells, V94 in the F2 subunit of FNSe or Fwt323 led to about 6-fold higher fusion activity compared to F proteins with M94. The co-expressed H protein (HNSe or Hwt323) did not influence fusion activity, indicating that the receptor (CD46 or SLAM) bound by H does not quantitatively affect the F proteins' activation. Analysis of F and H showed that formation and transport of MV glycoprotein complexes are not altered by substitution in aa 94 of FNSe or Fwt323.
Furthermore, recombinant MVNSe, MVNSe-F-M94, MVwt323, or MVwt323-F-V94 were rescued. Viral replication revealed slightly higher titers for recombinant MVs expressing M94 in F after 96 h of replication, compared to MVs expressing V94. MVs expressing V94 in F2 showed 2.5-fold higher fusion activity on CD46- and SLAM-positive Vero-hSLAM cells and 2-fold higher fusion activity on B95a cells expressing only SLAM compared to MVs expressing F with M94. Fusion activity of recombinant MVs can thus be modulated by substituting a single aa. V94 in the F protein results in highly fusion active MVs with possibly increased direct cytotoxicity in infected tumors, whereas M94 in F could be associated with decreased fusion activity for therapies, where higher virus titers are required.
Die Hefe Saccharomyces cerevisiae hat sich wie kaum ein anderer Organismus auf die Verwertung von Glukose spezialisiert. Die Aufnahme dieser Hexose stellt dabei den ersten Schritt der Metabolisierung dar. Saccharomyces cerevisiae besitzt hierfür eine große Zahl an Hexosetransportern und eignet sich daher gut zur Untersuchung der Wirkungsweise und Regulation dieser Transporter, sowie deren Translokation zur Plasmamembran.
Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war es, die Funktion des in der Membran des Endoplasmatischen Retikulums lokalisierten Proteins Gsf2 der Hefe Saccharomyces cerevisiae näher zu charakterisieren. Gsf2 ist an der Translokation der Hexosetransporter Hxt1, Hxt3 und Gal2 zur Plasmamembran beteiligt. Die Deletion von GSF2 führt zur Akkumulation dieser Transporter in der Membran des Endoplasmatischen Retikulums. Interaktionen von Gsf2 mit ribosomalen Proteinen, Komponenten der Translokationsmaschinerie und COPII-Hüllproteinen deuten auf eine multifunktionelle Hexosetransporterspezifische Funktion des Verpackungschaperons Gsf2 hin.
Mit Hilfe des „Synthetic Genetic Arrays“ wurde nach synthetisch letalen und synthetisch kranken Interaktionspartnern von GSF2 gesucht, die zur Aufklärung der Funktion von GSF2 beitragen beziehungsweise bisherige Forschungsergebnisse verifizieren sollten. Unter den nicht-essentiellen Genen der Hefe konnte allerdings kein synthetisch letaler oder synthetisch kranker Interaktionspartner von GSF2 ermittelt werden.
Im zweiten Projekt sollten Multicopy-Suppressoren aus einer Genbank identifiziert werden, die in der Lage sind die Deletion von GSF2 und damit verbundene Retention von Hxt1 in der Membran des Endoplasmatischen Retikulums zu komplementieren. Mit Hilfe dieses Screenings konnten einzig GSF2-kodierende Plasmide identifiziert werden.
Die Ergebnisse der beiden genetischen Screening-Verfahren belegen, dass Gsf2 eine herausragende Rolle innerhalb des Translokationsprozesses von Hxt1 einnimmt.