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We investigate the contribution of oceanic methyl iodide (CH3I) to the stratospheric iodine budget. Based on CH3I measurements from three tropical ship campaigns and the Lagrangian transport model FLEXPART, we provide a detailed analysis of CH3I transport from the ocean surface to the cold point in the upper tropical tropopause layer (TTL). While average oceanic emissions differ by less than 50% from campaign to campaign, the measurements show much stronger variations within each campaign. A positive correlation between the oceanic CH3I emissions and the efficiency of CH3I troposphere–stratosphere transport has been identified for some cruise sections. The mechanism of strong horizontal surface winds triggering large emissions on the one hand and being associated with tropical convective systems, such as developing typhoons, on the other hand, could explain the identified correlations. As a result of the simultaneous occurrence of large CH3I emissions and strong vertical uplift, localized maximum mixing ratios of 0.6 ppt CH3I at the cold point have been determined for observed peak emissions during the SHIVA (Stratospheric Ozone: Halogen Impacts in a Varying Atmosphere)-Sonne research vessel campaign in the coastal western Pacific. The other two campaigns give considerably smaller maxima of 0.1 ppt CH3I in the open western Pacific and 0.03 ppt in the coastal eastern Atlantic. In order to assess the representativeness of the large local mixing ratios, we use climatological emission scenarios to derive global upper air estimates of CH3I abundances. The model results are compared with available upper air measurements, including data from the recent ATTREX and HIPPO2 aircraft campaigns. In the eastern Pacific region, the location of the available measurement campaigns in the upper TTL, the comparisons give a good agreement, indicating that around 0.01 to 0.02 ppt of CH3I enter the stratosphere. However, other tropical regions that are subject to stronger convective activity show larger CH3I entrainment, e.g., 0.08 ppt in the western Pacific. Overall our model results give a tropical contribution of 0.04 ppt CH3I to the stratospheric iodine budget. The strong variations in the geographical distribution of CH3I entrainment suggest that currently available upper air measurements are not representative of global estimates and further campaigns will be necessary in order to better understand the CH3I contribution to stratospheric iodine.
We present the application of Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry (TOF MS) for the analysis of halocarbons in the atmosphere, after cryogenic sample preconcentration and gas chromatographic separation. For the described field of application, the Quadrupole Mass Spectrometer (QP MS) is the state-of-the-art detector. This work aims at comparing two commercially available instruments, a QP MS and a TOF MS with respect to mass resolution, mass accuracy, sensitivity, measurement precision and detector linearity. Both mass spectrometers are operated on the same gas chromatographic system by splitting the column effluent to both detectors. The QP MS had to be operated in optimised Single Ion Monitoring (SIM) mode to achieve a sensitivity which could compete with the TOF MS. The TOF MS provided full mass range information in any acquired mass spectrum without losing sensitivity. Whilst the QP MS showed the performance already achieved in earlier tests, the sensitivity of the TOF MS was on average higher than that of the QP MS in the "operational" SIM mode by a factor of up to 3 reaching detection limits of less than 0.2 pg. Measurement precision determined for the whole analytical system was up to 0.2% depending on substance and sampled volume. The TOF MS instrument used for this study displayed significant non-linearities of up to 10% for two third of all analysed substances.
We present novel measurements of five short-lived brominated source gases (CH2Br2, CHBr3, CH2ClBr, CHCl2Br and CHClBr2) obtained using a gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer system on board the High Altitude and Long Range Research Aircraft (HALO). The instrument is extremely sensitive due to the use of chemical ionisation, allowing detection limits in the lower parts per quadrillion (10-15) range. Data from three campaigns using the HALO aircraft are presented, where the Upper Troposphere/Lower Stratosphere (UTLS) of the Northern Hemisphere mid to high latitudes were sampled during winter and during late summer to early fall. We show that an observed decrease with altitude in the stratosphere is consistent with the relative lifetimes of the different compounds. Distributions of the five source gases and total organic bromine just below the tropopause shows an increase in mixing ratio with latitude, in particular during polar winter. This increase in mixing ratio is explained by increasing lifetimes at higher latitudes during winter. As the mixing ratio at the extratropical tropopause are generally higher than those derived for the tropical tropopause, extratropical troposphere-to-stratosphere transport will result in elevated levels of organic bromine in comparison to air transported over the tropical tropopause. The observations are compared to model estimates using different emission scenarios. A scenario which has emissions most strongly concentrated to low latitudes cannot reproduce the observed latitudinal distributions and will tend to overestimate bromine input through the tropical tropopause from CH2Br2 and CHBr3. Consequently, the scenario also overestimates the amount of brominated organic gases in the stratosphere. The two scenarios with the highest overall emissions of CH2Br2 tend to overestimate mixing ratios at the tropical tropopause but are in much better agreement with extratropical tropopause values, showing that not only total emissions but also latitudinal distributions in the emissions are of importance. While an increase in tropopause values with latitude is reproduced with all emission scenarios during winter, the simulated extratropical tropopause values are on average lower than the observations during late summer to fall. We show that a good knowledge of the latitudinal distribution of tropopause mixing ratios and of the fractional contributions of tropical and extratropical air is needed to derive stratospheric inorganic bromine in the lowermost stratosphere from observations. Depending on the underlying emission scenario, differences of a factor 2 in reactive bromine derived from observations and model outputs are found for the lowermost stratosphere, based on source gas injection. We conclude that a good representation of the contributions of different source regions is required in models for a robust assessment of the role of short-lived halogen source gases on ozone depletion in the UTLS.
Background: Point of care devices for performing targeted coagulation substitution in bleeding patients have become increasingly important in recent years. New on the market is the Quantra® from HemoSonics (LC, Charlottesville, VA, US). It uses sonorheometry, a sonic estimation of elasticity via resonance (SEER), a novel ultrasound-based technology that measures viscoelastic properties of whole blood. Several studies have already shown the comparability with devices already established on the market such as the ROTEM® (TEM International GmbH, Munich, Germany).
Objective: In contrast to existing studies, the planned study will be the first prospective interventional study using the new Quantra® system in a cardiac surgical patient cohort. The aim is to investigate the non-inferiority between an already existing coagulation algorithm, based on ROTEM®/Multiplate®, and a new algorithm based on the Quantra®, for the treatment of coagulopathic cardiac surgical patients.
Methods: The study is divided into two phases. In an initial observation phase, whole blood samples of 20 patients will be analyzed using both ROTEM®/Multiplate® and Quantra® obtained at three defined points of time (prior to surgery, after completion of cardiopulmonary bypass, on arrival in the intensive care unit). The obtained threshold values will be used to create an algorithm for hemotherapy. In a second intervention phase, the new algorithm will be tested against an algorithm used routineously for years at our department for non-inferiority.
Results: The main objective of the examination is the cumulative loss of blood within 24 hours after surgery. Statistical calculations based on literature and in-house data suggest that the new algorithm is not inferior if the difference in cumulative blood loss is < 150ml/24 h.
Conclusions: Because of the comparability of the Quantra® sonorheometry system with ROTEM® rotational thromboelastometric measurement methods, the existing hemotherapy treatment algorithm can be adapted to the Quantra device with a proof of non-inferiority. Clinical Trial: International Registered Report Identifier (IRRID): clinicaltrials.gov: NCT03902275
We investigate the contribution of oceanic methyl iodide (CH3I) to the stratospheric iodine budget. Based on CH3I measurements during three tropical ship campaigns and the Lagrangian transport model FLEXPART we provide a detailed analysis of CH3I transport from the ocean surface to the cold point in the upper tropical tropopause layer (TTL). While average oceanic emissions differ by less than 50% from campaign to campaign, the measurements show much stronger variations within each campaign. A positive correlation between the oceanic CH3I emissions and the efficiency of CH3I troposphere–stratosphere transport has been identified for some cruise sections. The mechanism of strong horizontal surface winds triggering large emissions on the one hand and being associated with tropical convective systems, such as developing typhoons, on the other hand, could explain the identified correlations. As a result of the simultaneous occurrence of large CH3I emissions and strong vertical uplift, localized maximum mixing ratios of 0.6 ppt CH3I at the cold point have been determined for observed peak emissions during the SHIVA-Sonne campaign in the coastal West Pacific. The other two campaigns give considerable smaller maxima of 0.1 ppt CH3I for the TransBrom campaign in the open West Pacific and 0.03 ppt for emissions from the coastal East Atlantic during the DRIVE campaign. In order to assess the representativeness of the large local mixing ratios we use climatological emission scenarios to derive global upper air estimates of CH3I abundances. The model results are compared to available upper air measurements including data from the recent ATTREX and HIPPO2 aircraft campaigns. In the East Pacific region, the location of the available measurement campaigns in the upper TTL, the comparisons give a good agreement indicating that around 0.01 to 0.02 ppt of CH3I enter the stratosphere. However, other tropical regions, which are subject to stronger convective activity show larger CH3I entrainment, e.g., 0.08 ppt in the West Pacific. The strong variations in the geographical distribution of CH3I entrainment suggest that currently available upper air measurements are not representative of global estimates and further campaigns will be necessary in order to better understand the CH3I contribution to stratospheric iodine.
Estimates of the recovery time of stratospheric ozone heavily rely on the exact knowledge of the processes that lead to the decomposition of the relevant halogenated source gases. Crucial parameters in this context are fractional release factors (FRFs) as well as stratospheric lifetimes and ozone depletion potentials (ODPs). We here present data from the analysis of air samples collected between 2009 and 2011 on board research aircraft flying in the mid- and high-latitude stratosphere and infer the above-mentioned parameters for ten major source gases: CFCl3 (CFC-11), CF2Cl2 (CFC-12), CF2ClCFCl2 (CFC-113), CCl4 (carbon tetrachloride), CH3CCl3 (methyl chloroform), CHF2Cl (HCFC-22), CH3CFCl2 (HCFC-141b), CH3CF2Cl (HCFC-142b), CF2ClBr (H-1211), and CF3Br (H-1301). The inferred correlations of their FRFs with mean ages of air reveal less decomposition as compared to previous studies for most compounds. When using the calculated set of FRFs to infer equivalent stratospheric chlorine, we find a reduction of more than 20% as compared to the values inferred in the most recent Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion by the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO, 2011). We also note that FRFs and their correlations with mean age are not generally time-independent as often assumed. The stratospheric lifetimes were calculated relative to that of CFC-11. Within our uncertainties the ratios between stratospheric lifetimes inferred here agree with the values in recent WMO reports except for CFC-11, CFC-12 and CH3CCl3. Finally, we calculate lower ODPs than recommended by WMO for six out of ten compounds, with changes most pronounced for the three HCFCs. Collectively these newly calculated values may have important implications for the severity and recovery time of stratospheric ozone loss.
The fractional release factor (FRF) gives information on the amount of a halocarbon that is released at some point into the stratosphere from its source form to the inorganic form, which can harm the ozone layer through catalytic reactions. The quantity is of major importance because it directly affects the calculation of the ozone depletion potential (ODP). In this context time-independent values are needed which, in particular, should be independent of the trends in the tropospheric mixing ratios (tropospheric trends) of the respective halogenated trace gases. For a given atmospheric situation, such FRF values would represent a molecular property.
We analysed the temporal evolution of FRF from ECHAM/MESSy Atmospheric Chemistry (EMAC) model simulations for several halocarbons and nitrous oxide between 1965 and 2011 on different mean age levels and found that the widely used formulation of FRF yields highly time-dependent values. We show that this is caused by the way that the tropospheric trend is handled in the widely used calculation method of FRF.
Taking into account chemical loss in the calculation of stratospheric mixing ratios reduces the time dependence in FRFs. Therefore we implemented a loss term in the formulation of the FRF and applied the parameterization of a mean arrival time to our data set.
We find that the time dependence in the FRF can almost be compensated for by applying a new trend correction in the calculation of the FRF. We suggest that this new method should be used to calculate time-independent FRFs, which can then be used e.g. for the calculation of ODP.
Im Rahmen des Projektes SPURT (Spurenstofftransport in der Tropopausenregion) als Teil des deutschen Atmosphärenforschungsprogramms AFO 2000 wurden bei 8 Messkampagnen mit insgesamt 36 Flügen innerhalb eines Beobachtungszeitraums von zwei Jahren (Nov. 2001 bis Juli 2003) Spurengasmessungen in dem Breitenbereich zwischen 35°N und 75°N durchgeführt. Für die Messungen der Spurengase N2O, F12, SF6, H2 und CO wurde der vollautomatisierte in-situ GC (Gaschromatograph) GhOST II (Gas Chromatograph for the Observation of Stratospheric Tracers) entwickelt und eingesetzt. Das Ziel dieser Messungen war die Untersuchung der jahreszeitlichen Variabilität der Spurengase in der oberen Troposphäre und untersten Stratosphäre (UT/LMS: Upper Troposphere/Lowermost Stratosphere), um die Transport- und Austauschprozesse in der Tropopausenregion besser zu verstehen. Zur Untersuchung von Transport und Mischung in der UT/LMS wurden die Rückwärtstrajektorien entlang der Flugpfade, die Verteilungen der Tracer N2O, F12, SF6, CO und CO2 (MPI für Chemie in Mainz), die Tracer/Tracer-Korrelationen N2O/F12, N2O/O3 F12/O3 und SF6/O3 und die Verteilungen des aus SF6-Messungen berechnete mittlere Alters der Luft herangezogen. Zusätzlich wurden die simultanen Messungen der beiden Alterstracer CO2 und SF6 genutzt, um die Propagation der Amplitude des troposphärischen CO2-Jahresgangs in die LMS zu bestimmen und daraus mit Hilfe eines empirischen Altersspektrums den Eintrag und die mittlere Transportzeit aus der Troposphäre in die unterste Stratosphäre zu quantifizieren. Grundsätzlich muss die LMS in zwei Bereiche eingeteilt werden – die Übergangsschicht („tropopause following layer“) bis etwa 20-30 K über der potentiellen Temperatur der lokalen Tropopause [Hoor et al., 2004] und die freie LMS oberhalb dieser Schicht. Als wesentliche Unterscheidungsmerkmale beider Bereiche wird die mittlere Transportzeit des Eintrags troposphärischer Luft identifiziert. Aus Trajektorienuntersuchungen und Tracerverteilungen (Kap. 3.4) kann gezeigt werden, dass der Transport in die Übergangsschicht und die Mischungsprozesse in diesem Bereich auf der Zeitskala der mesoskaligen troposphärischen Prozesse ablaufen. Im Gegensatz dazu werden aus der Massenbilanz (Kap. 5.3) mittlere Transportzeiten aus der Troposphäre in die freie LMS von einigen Wochen bis zu mehreren Monaten abgeleitet. Außerdem konnte nachgewiesen werden, dass der troposphärische Eintrag in der freien LMS fast ausschließlich auf quasihorizontale isentrope Einmischung aus den Tropen über die Transportbarriere des Subtropenjets zurückzuführen ist. Nur im Sommer und Herbst konnte auch oberhalb der Übergangsschicht für einzelne Messungen ein Einfluss aus der extratropischen Troposphäre beobachtet werden. Die in dieser Arbeit untersuchten Tracerverteilungen und -korrelationen (Kap. 4) und die Verteilung des mittleren Alters (Kap.5.2) in der LMS zeigen einen Jahresgang mit einem maximalen troposphärischen Einfluss im Oktober und einem maximalen stratosphärischen Einfluss im April. Diese saisonale Charakteristik in der freien LMS kann durch die saisonalen Änderungen des Verhältnisses von Abwärtstransport aus der Overworld und quasihorizontalem Transport aus den Tropen und durch die mit den jeweiligen Transportprozessen assoziierte mittlere Transportzeiten erklärt werden, die aus Massenbilanzrechnungen bestimmt wurden. Es wird gezeigt, dass der überwiegende Eintrag von troposphärischer Luft in die LMS im Sommer und Herbst stattfindet, wobei im Mittel die kürzesten mittleren Transitzeiten (unter 0.3 Jahre) für den August und die längsten Transitzeiten (über 0.6 Jahre) für den Mai berechnet werden. Aus den Ergebnissen wird gefolgert, dass ein ausgeprägter isentroper Austauschprozess über den Subtropenjet im Sommer bis in den Herbst hinein der dominierende troposphärische Einfluss in der LMS bis in den Mai ist. Der Vergleich zwischen SPURT und anderen in der UT/LMS im Zeitraum von 1992 bis 1998 durchgeführten Messkampagnen zeigt einen systematischen Unterschied in den N2O/O3-Korrelationen. Die Zunahme von O3 relativ zu N2O in der LMS ist um etwa 6.5 ppb O3 pro 1 ppb N2O bzw. etwa 40% größer als die Zunahme bei jahreszeitlich vergleichbaren früheren Kampagnen. Durch eine weitergehende Analyse der Messungen, z.B. durch den Vergleich der N2O-Verteilungen in der LMS bei verschiedenen Messkampagnen, und zusätzlichen Informationen aus Satelliten- und Ballonmessungen wird abgeleitet, dass diese Änderung der N2O/O3-Korrelationen im Wesentlichen auf einen im Zeitraum von SPURT stärkeren quasihorizontalen Transport aus den Tropen in die Extratropen im Bereich des so genannten „tropical controlled transition layer“ [Rosenlof et al., 1997] zwischen 16-21 km (bzw. Θ ≈ 380-450 K) zurückzuführen ist. In Kooperation mit B. Bregman wurden mit dem Chemie-Transport-Modell TM5 des KNMI die Verteilungen von SF6 und CO2 in der Troposphäre und Stratosphäre, unter den Zielsetzungen Evaluation des Modelltransports und Erweiterung des Datensatzes von SPURT auf globalen Maßstab, für den Zeitraum 1.1.2000 bis 31.12.2002 modelliert. Dabei konnte gezeigt werden, dass bei Modellstudien zur Evaluation des Transports mit Hilfe von Alterstracern nicht nur troposphärisch monoton steigende Tracer wie SF6 sondern auch saisonal variable Tracer wie CO2 verwendet werden müssen. Bei dem Vergleich der Modellergebnisse des TM5 mit ER2- und SPURTMessungen zeigt sich, dass das Modell zum jetzigen Zeitpunkt in der Lage ist, das mittlere Alter in der unteren Stratosphäre und die SF6- und CO2-Verteilungen in der LMS qualitativ richtig wiederzugeben. Das mittlere Alter in der unteren Stratosphäre wird um etwa 0.5 bis 1 Jahr in den Tropen über- und in den Extratropen unterschätzt. Die vertikalen Gradienten im Modell für SF6 und CO2 in der LMS sind, insbesondere im Winter und Frühjahr, zu gering. Die Amplitude des CO2-Jahresganges in der oberen Troposphäre und in der LMS wird durch das Modell unterschätzt, während der saisonale Verlauf des Jahresganges richtig wiedergegeben wird. Im Moment wird vermutet, dass eine zu starke isentrope Mischung zwischen Tropen und Extratropen und/oder ein zu geringer Aufwärtstransport in der extratropischen Troposphäre im Sommer und Herbst die Ursachen für die beobachteten Abweichungen zwischen Modell und Messung sind.
The seasonality of transport and mixing of air into the lowermost stratosphere (LMS) is studied using distributions of mean age of air and a~mass balance approach, based on in-situ observations of SF6 and CO2 during the SPURT (Spurenstofftransport in der Tropopausenregion, trace gas transport in the tropopause region) aircraft campaigns. Combining the information of the mean age of air and the water vapour distributions we demonstrate that the tropospheric air transported into the LMS above the extratropical tropopause layer (ExTL) originates predominantly from the tropical tropopause layer (TTL). The concept of our mass balance is based on simultaneous measurements of the two passive tracers and the assumption that transport into the LMS can be described by age spectra which are superposition of two different modes. Based on this concept we conclude that the stratospheric influence on LMS composition is strongest in April with tropospheric fractions (α1) below 20% and that the strongest tropospheric signatures are found in October with (α1 greater than 80%. Beyond the fractions, our mass balance concept allows to calculate the associated transit times for transport of tropospheric air from the tropics into the LMS. The shortest transit times (<0.3 years) are derived for the summer, continuously increasing up to 0.8 years by the end of spring. These findings suggest that strong quasi-horizontal mixing across the weak subtropical jet from summer to mid of autumn and the considerably shorter residual transport time-scales within the lower branch of the Brewer-Dobson circulation in summer than in winter dominates the tropospheric influence in the LMS until the beginning of next year's summer.