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Bacteria are true artists of survival, which rapidly adapt to environmental changes like pH shifts, temperature changes and different salinities. Upon osmotic shock, bacteria are able to counteract the loss of water by the uptake of potassium ions. In many bacteria, this is accomplished by the major K+ uptake system KtrAB. The system consists of the K+-translocating channel subunit KtrB, which forms a dimer in the membrane, and the cytoplasmic regulatory RCK subunit KtrA, which binds non-covalently to KtrB as an octameric ring. This unique architecture differs strongly from other RCK-gated K+ channels like MthK or GsuK, in which covalently tethered cytoplasmic RCK domains regulate a single tetrameric pore. As a consequence, an adapted gating mechanism is required: The activation of KtrAB depends on the binding of ATP and Mg2+ to KtrA, while ADP binding at the same site results in inactivation, mediated by conformational rearrangements. However, it is still poorly understood how the nucleotides are exchanged and how the resulting conformational changes in KtrA control gating in KtrB is still poorly understood.
Here,I present a 2.5-Å cryo-EM structure of ADP-bound, inactive KtrAB, which for the first time resolves the N termini of both KtrBs. They are located at the interface of KtrA and KtrB, forming a strong interaction network with both subunits. In combination with functional and EPR data we show that the N termini, surrounded by a lipidic environment, play a crucial role in the activation of the KtrAB system. We are proposing an allosteric network, in which an interaction of the N termini with the membrane facilitates MgATP-triggered conformational changes, leading to the active, conductive state.
The adaptive immune system protects against daily infections and malignant transformation. In this, the translocation of antigenic peptides by the transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP) into the ER lumen is an essential step in the antigen presentation by MHC I molecules. The heterodimeric ATP-binding cassette transporter (ABC) TAP consist of the two halftransporters TAP1 and TAP2. Each monomer contains an N-terminal transmembrane domain (TMD) and a conserved C-terminal nucleotide-binding domain (NBD). Together, the TMDs build the translocation core and the NBDs bind and hydrolyze ATP, energizing the peptide transport. TAP features an asymmetry in the two ATP-binding sites that are built of several conserved motifs. One motif is the D-loop with the consensus sequence SALD. The highly conserved aspartate of the D-loop of TAP1 reaches into the canonic ATP-binding site and contacts the Walker A motif and the H-loop of the opposite NBD, while the Asp of D-loop of TAP2 is part of the non-canonic ATP-binding site.
To examine this ABC transport complex in mechanistic detail, a purification and reconstitution procedure was established with the function of TAP being preserved. The heterodimeric TAP complex was purified via a His10-tag at TAP1 in a 1:1 ratio of the subunits. Nucleotide binding to the purified transporter was elucidated by tryptophan quenching assays and the affinity constants for MgADP and MgATP were determined to be 1.0 μM and 0.7 μM, respectevely. In addition, the TAP complex shows strict coupling between peptide binding and ATP hydrolysis, revealing no basal ATPase activity in the absence of peptides. Furthermore, TAP was reconstituted into proteoliposomes and the activity was tested by peptide transport and ATP hydrolysis. Interestingly, the kinetic parameters of the transporter in the reconstituted state are comparable to the data gained for TAP in microsomes.
To characterize the functional importance of the D-loop, D-loop mutants of either TAP1 or TAP2 were analyzed. Strikingly, TAP containing a mutated D-loop in TAP1 (D674A) shows an ATP-hydrolysis independent peptide translocation. Accordingly, the MHC I surface expression is similar to the wildtype situation. However, the same mutation in TAP2 (D638A) results in an ATPase dependent peptide transport similar to wildtype, whereas TAP containing mutations in both subunits leads to an inactive transporter. Although all D-loop mutants showed no altered peptide binding activity, the TAP1 mutant is inactive in peptide-stimulated ATPase activity. Strikingly, ATP or ADP binding is strictly required for the peptide translocation. Experiments carried out in proteoliposomes demonstrate that wildtype TAP can export peptides against their gradient when low peptide concentrations are offered. In contrast, the D674A mutant can facilitate peptide translocation along their concentration gradient in the two directions. At high peptide concentrations, TAP is trapped in a transport incompetent state induced by trans-inhibition. In conclusion, a TAP mutant that uncouples solute translocation from ATP hydrolysis was created. Since this passive substrate movement is strictly dependent on binding of ATP or ADP, an active transporter was turned into a “nucleotide-gated facilitator”.
In a cysteine cross-linking approach the conformational changes of TAP during peptide transport and the flexibility of the nucleotide binding domains were examined. Single cysteines were introduced in the D-loops of TAP1 and TAP2. Cross-linking by copper-phenantroline (CuPhe) was possible for all combinations. However, by adding ATP, ADP or peptide to the TAP complex no differences in the cross-linking efficiency were detected. By CuPhe cross-linking TAP was trapped in a conformation, in which the peptide binding site was not accessible. To complete a transport cycle, a flexibility of at least 17.8 Å of the NBDs is needed, since TAP cross-linked by CuPhe (2.0 Å) or bismaleimidoethane (BMOE, 8.0 Å) was transport inactive but when TAP was cross-linked by 1,11-bismaleimido-triethyleneglycol (BM[PEG]3, 17.8 Å) transport activity was preserved.
Die membranintegrierten, rotierenden F-Typ ATP-Synthasen zählen zu den essentiellen Komponenten der bakteriellen Energieversorgung. Ihre Rolle im zellulären Energiehaushalt bestehtin der Synthese von ATP unter Nutzung des transmembranen, elektrischen Ionengradienten (Mitchell 1961, Duncan et al. 1995, Noji et al. 1997, Kinosita et al. 1998). Die rotierenden ATP-Synthasen werden entsprechend der Kationenselektivität, die sie unter physiologischen Bedingungen zeigen, in zwei verschiedene Klassen eingeteilt, die H+-selektiven, sowiedie Na+-selektiven ATP-Synthasen. Hierbei bildet die Selektivität beider Klassen für einwertige Kationen (H+ oder Na+) eine essenzielle Grundlage für ihre Rolle im Energiehaushalt der bakteriellen Zellen. Jedoch gibt es nur eine begrenzte Anzahl von anaeroben Eubakterien und Archaeen, die noch einen auf Na+- Ionen basierenden Energiehaushalt besitzen. Gut charakterisierte Beispiele für Na+-selektive ATP-Synthasen bilden die F-Typ-Synthasen von I. tartaricus, P. modestum, sowie die V/A-Typ-Enzyme von E. hirae und A. woodii. Trotz der Unterschiede in der Kationenselektivitätder unterschiedlichen F-Typ ATP-Synthasen sind sie jedoch sowohl inihre Organisation, als auch hinsichtlich ihre Wirkungsweisen ähnlich. Das Ziel, der im Rahmen dieser Arbeit durchgeführten Forschung, bestand in der Identifizierung der Faktoren, die sowohl die hohen Selektivität, als auch die Affinität des in der Membran-eingebetteten Rotor-C-Rings der ATP-Synthasezu Protonen (H+) und Na+- Ionen beeinflussen. Die Untersuchungen wurden hierbei andem c11-Ring der F-Typ-ATP-Synthase aus dem anaeroben Bakterium Ilyobacter tartaricus durchgeführt, das hierbei als Modellsystem diente. Der untersuchte Ring zeigt unter physiologischen Bedingungen eine hohe Bindungsselektivität für Na+ Ionen, kann jedoch unter nicht-physiologischen Bedingungen auch Li+ und H+ Ionen binden und zur ATP-Synthese verwenden (Neumann et al. 1998).
Das Ziel, der im Rahmen dieser Arbeit durchgeführten Forschung, bestand in der Identifizierung der Faktoren, die sowohl die hohen Selektivität, als auch die Affinität des in der Membran-eingebetteten Rotor-C-Rings der ATP-Synthasezu Protonen (H+) und Na+- Ionen beeinflussen. Die Untersuchungen wurden hierbei andem c11-Ring der F-Typ-ATP-Synthase aus dem anaeroben Bakterium Ilyobacter tartaricus durchgeführt, das hierbei als Modellsystem diente. Der untersuchte Ring zeigt unter physiologischen Bedingungen eine hohe Bindungsselektivität für Na+ Ionen, kann jedoch unter nicht-physiologischen Bedingungen auch Li+ und H+ Ionen binden und zur ATP-Synthese verwenden (Neumann et al. 1998). Die Kd- und KM-Werte wurden verwendet, um die Na+ -Bindungsaffinität der C-Ringe bzw. ATP-Synthasen zu quantifizieren. Über die Selektivität wurdebeschrieben, welche Kationen an die C-Ringe und ATP-Synthasen binden können (z. B. H+/Na+/Li+, H+/Na+ - oder nur H+ Ionen).Das Verhältnis der absoluten Bindungsaffinitäten zwischen zwei Kationen (z. B. Kd (Na+)/Kd (H+)) wurde verwendet, um die Präferenz des Enzyms für eines der Ionen zu quantifizieren. Die Faktoren, dieder Kationenselektivität und der Affinität des I. tartaricus c-Rings zugrunde liegen, wurden mit Hilfe von Mutageneseexperimenten der Aminosäuren in der Ionenbindungsstelle untersucht. Im I. tartaricus-c-Ring erfolgt die Na+ Bindung an der Grenzfläche von zwei benachbarten c-Untereinheiten des c-Rings. An der Bindung der Na+-Ionen sind sowohl Aminosäuren aus Helix 1 (Gln32), sowie von Helix 2 (Val63, Ser66, Thr67 und Tyr70) beteiligt, die in der Nähe, des für den Mechanismusessentiellen Glu65 liegen. Insgesamt wurden 19 verschiedene, spezifische Einzel- und Doppelmutationen in die Sequenz des atpE-Gens eingeführt, die für die I. tarticus-ATP-Synthase-c-Untereinheit kodiert. Bei den Experimenten mit dem I. tartaricus c-Ring (Ser66, Thr67 und Tyr70) wurden drei polare Reste der Ionenbindungsstelle durch die polaren Reste (Ser67, Ile67 oder Leu67) oder hydrophobe Reste (Ala66, Gln67 und Phe70) ersetzt, während das geladene Glu65 durch die kürzere, aber immer noch geladene Seitenkette Asp65 ausgetauscht wurde. Zur Charakterisierung der monovalenten Kationenbindung durch die Wildtyp, sowie die mutierten C-Ringe von I.-tartaricus, wurde ein Ansatz verwendet, der biochemische (DCCD-Ionen-Kompetitionsassay) und biophysikalische (ITC) Methoden kombiniert.
Die Daten der in dieser Arbeit durchgeführten Experimente, zeigen, dass c-Ringe selektiv für H+ sind, solange in der Ionenbindungsstelle des c-Rings ein ionisierbarer Glu/Asp-Rest vorhanden ist. Die H+-Bindungsaffinität des c-Rings hängt von der Hydrophobizität der Reste ab, aus der die Ionenbindungsstelle aufgebaut ist.Jedoch ist die Zahl der Faktoren, die die Na+-Selektivität des C-Rings bestimmen, weitaus größer. Von den in dieser Arbeit untersuchten Faktoren war die Zahl der polaren Reste, die Wasserstoffbrücken zu Na+ bilden, die Co-Koordination von Na+ durch strukturell vorhandene Wassermoleküle und die Anwesenheit von negativ geladenen Resten besonders wichtig für die Bindung der Na+-Ionen an den Ring. Die hohe Bindungsaffinität des c-Rings für Na+-Ionen, wird sowohl durch Wechselwirkungen begünstigt die das gebundene Na+-Ion stabilisieren, als auch den gesamten atomaren Aufbau der Ionenbindestelle, der die enthalpiegetriebene Na+-Bindungan den c-Ring begünstigen. Im Rahmen dieser eingehenden Studien konnten zum ersten Mal die thermodynamischen Eigenschaften aufgeklärt werden, die der hohen Na+-Bindungsaffinität des c-Rings zugrunde liegen, sowie der Einfluss von Mutationen auf diese Parameter ermittelt werden. Durch zahlreiche Experimente mit ATP-Synthasen, die mit mutierten c-Ringen zusammengesetzt wurden, sollte eine Verbindung zwischen Veränderungen der H+- und der Na+-Bindungsaffinitäten und Unterschiede im Betrieb der ATP-Synthase aufgeklärt werden. Die wichtigste Schlussfolgerung, die sich aus dieser Arbeit ableiten lässt, ist, besteht darin, dass sich Na+/H+-selektiven ATP-Synthasen durch den Austausch von 1-2 Aminosäureresten innerhalb der rotierenden c-Ring-Ionenbindungsstelle in ausschließlich H+-selektive, vollfunktionelle ATP-Synthasen umwandeln lassen.
Cell-free-synthesized voltage-gated proton channels: Approaches to the study of protein dynamics
(2018)
We often only realize how important health is when diseases manifest themselves through their symptoms and, ultimately, in a diagnosis. Over time, we suffer from many diseases starting with the first childhood disease to colds to gastrointestinal infections. Most diseases pass harmlessly and symptoms fade away. However, not all diseases are so harmless. Alzheimer’s disease, breast cancer, Parkinson’s disease, and colorectal cancer usually cause severe illness with high mortality rates. In pharmaceutical research, efforts are therefore being made to determine the molecular basis of them in order to provide patients with potential relief and, at best, healing. A special group of regulators, involved in the previously mentioned diseases, are voltage-gated proton channels. Thus, the understanding of their structure, function, and potential drug interaction is of great importance for humanity.
Voltage-gated proton channels are localized in the cell membrane. As their name indicates, they are controlled by voltage changes. Depolarization of the cell membrane induces conformational changes that open these channels allowing protons to pass through. Here, the transfer is based on a passive process driven by a concentration gradient between two individual compartments separated by the cell membrane. Voltage-gated proton channels are highly selective for protons and show a temperature- and pH-dependent gating behavior. However, little is known about their channeling mechanism. Previous experimental results are insufficient for understanding the key features of proton channeling.
In this thesis, for the first time, the cell-free production of voltage-sensing domains (VSD) of human voltage-gated proton channels (hHV1) and zebrafish voltage-sensing phosphatases (DrVSP) is described. Utilizing the cell free approach, parameters concerning protein stability, folding and labeling can be easily addressed. Furthermore, the provision of a membrane mimetic in form of detergent micelles, nanodiscs, or liposomes for co-translational incorporations of these membrane proteins is simple and efficient. Both VSDs were successfully produced up to 3 mg/ml. Furthermore, the cell-free synthesis enabled for the first time studies of lipid-dependent co-translational VSD insertions into nanodiscs and liposomes. Cell-free produced VSDs were shown to be active, and to exist mainly as dimers. In addition, also their activation was stated to be lipid-dependent, which has not been described so far. Solution-state NMR experiments were performed with fully and selectively labeled cell-free produced VSDs. With respect to the development of potential drug candidates, I could demonstrate the inhibition of the VSDs by 2-guanidinobenzimidazole (2GBI). Determined KD values were comparable to literature data for the human construct. For the first time, a low affinity for 2GBI of the zebrafish VSD could be described.
In future, the combination of a fast, easy and cheap cell-free production of fully or selectively labeled VSDs and their analysis by solution state NMR will enable structure determinations as well as inhibitor binding studies and protein dynamic investigations of those proteins. The results of these investigations will serve as a basis for example for the development of new drugs. In addition, a detailed description of the lipid-dependent activity might be helpful in controlling the function of voltage-gated proton channels in cancer cells and thereby reducing their growth or disturbing their cell homeostasis in general.
Zika-virus (ZIKV), a flavivirus mainly transmitted by Aedes mosquitoes, is a single-stranded, positive-sense RNA virus. The viral genome is surrounded by a nucleocapsid and a lipid bilayer, in which membrane and envelope proteins are embedded. ZIKV disease is mainly characterized by mild symptoms, such as fever, rash as well as pain in head and joints. However, after epidemics it caused in the Americas in 2015/16, ZIKV infections were also associated with severe neurological complications like the Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS) and microcephaly in fetuses and newborns. So far there are no specific antiviral treatments or vaccines available against ZIKV. This strengthens the need for a detailed understanding of the viral life cycle and virus-host interactions.
The antiviral host factor tetherin (THN) is an interferon-stimulated protein and therefore part of the cellular innate immune response. It comprises an N-terminal cytoplasmic domain, followed by a transmembrane helix, an extracellular coiled-coil domain and a C-terminal glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor. Containing two sites for membrane insertion linked by a flexible structure, THN is able to integrate into the membrane of budding viruses, thereby attaching them to each other and to the cell membrane and preventing their further release and spread.
In this study, the crosstalk of ZIKV and THN was analyzed. Previous gene expression analyses by microarray and quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) had revealed a strong upregulation of the BST2 gene encoding for THN in ZIKV-infected cells. However, this enhanced expression did not correlate with an enhanced THN protein level. On the contrary, the amount of THN in THN-overexpressing cells was after infection even heavily reduced. Furthermore, immunofluorescence analyses revealed a loss of THN membrane localization in these cells. By performing a cycloheximide assay, this loss could be traced back to a reduced protein half-life of THN in infected versus uninfected cells. Treatment with inhibitors of different protein degradation pathways as well as colocalization analyses with markers of several subcellular compartments indicated an involvement of the endo-lysosomal route. A knock-down of the ESCRT-0 protein HRS however prevented the sorting of THN for lysosomal degradation and led to a stabilization of THN protein levels. After HRS depletion, the release and spread of viral particles was reduced in THN-overexpressing compared to wildtype cells.
Taken together, the data obtained in this study revealed the potential of THN to restrict ZIKV release and spread. The enhanced degradation of THN in ZIKV-infected cells via the endo-lysosomal pathway could therefore be explained as an effective viral escape strategy. This could be circumvented by knockdown of the ESCRT-0 protein HRS, which highlighted HRS as a potential target for the development of antiviral treatments.
Life-saving pig-to-human xenotransplantation is a promising technology with the potential to balance the shortage of human organs in allotransplantation. Before this approach is applied on solid vascularized organs, several barriers must be overcome. Patient safety is menaced by infectious porcine endogenous retroviruses (PERV) which are able to infect human cell lines in vitro. Successful infection with PERV is associated with diverse life-threatening consequences including gene disruption, tumorigenicity, immune suppression as well as PERV proliferation throughout the whole human body. This could cause a catastrophic xenozonoosis leading to the emergence of new forms of pathogens and pandemic diseases similar to AIDS. However, in vivo, there is hitherto no incidence of any infection with PERV in preclinical xenotransplantations performed in the past.
PERV infection of human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (huPBMC) is a critical issue discussed controversially in several studies. It is essential to address the sensitivity of huPBMC to infection by PERV since it is generally one of the first retroviral targets upon viral invasion and infection of the human body. To assess definitely if huPBMC are infected productively by PERV, target cells were challenged with the highest infectious PERV class, recombinant PERV-A/C, in different assays. Modern and standard methods to detect PERV at different stages of viral cycles were used to monitor PERV development upon contact with host cells. Indeed, PERV-A/C in supernatants of producer cell lines failed to infect mitogen-activated huPBMC. Neither retroviral reverse transcriptase (RT) nor viral RNA packaged in virus particles were observed in supernatants of cells exposed to viral supernatants. In addition, provirus was not detected in huPBMC until 56 days p. i. with PERV-A/C. Independently of the virus load applied, culture conditions of huPBMC or administration of polybrene as enhancer, PERV was unable to infect huPBMC. Results suggest that PERV in supernatants lack sufficient infectious potential to be productively generated in huPBMC.
In order to approximate xenotransplantation scenarios, different PERV producing cells including PHA-activated porcine PBMC (poPBMC) were adopted as virus source in co-cultivation studies with huPBMC. In this case, expression of viral RNA was successfully measured. However, RT activity did not increase until 28 days p. e. with PERV producer cells which indicates that viral particles devoid of infectious capacity were released from non-productively infected cells.
On the other hand, co-cultivation of both virus producer and virus recipients increases the contact pressure between PERV and target cells. Consequently, PERV was able to be detected at least as provirus in huPBMC. Although virions produced were not functional, presence of provirus in infected cells will sooner or later provoke expression of provirus. This could lead to chromosomal rearrangements as well as virus reinfection and insertional mutagenesis.
Ecotropic PERV-C displays a restricted host range to porcine cells. Given its ability to serve as template to form recombinant xenotropic PERV-A/C, PERV-C represents a potent hazard in the course of xenotransplantation. Thus, isolation and functional characterization of PERV-C in the genome of pigs in use and intended for xenotransplantation is necessary to analyze the genetics of these virions as well as to select animals lacking proviral PERV-C or to generate transgenic PERV-C negative donors.
PERV-C was isolated from the genome of a female SLAd/d haplotype pig via screening of a bacteriophage library which was constructed from the genomic DNA of poPBMC extracted from this PERV non-transmitting sow. Upon genetic complementation of provirus using a PCR fragment infectious ability of full-length PERV-C clones was investigated in cell culture. PERV-C clones were successfully reproduced in susceptible porcine cells as RT activity as well as viral RNA were detected in supernatants of infected cells 56 days p. i. Furthermore, presence of proviruses in challenged cells was confirmed by nested PCR.
PERV-C clones were also isolated from a bacteriophage library generated on genomic DNA of an Auckland island pig of the DPF colony, whose individuals display a PERV-null phenotype and are already in use for xenotransplantation, and of a Göttingen minipig, whose relatives serve as animal models to study human diseases. In contrast to PERV clones isolated from the female SLAd/d haplotype sow PERV-C clones of the Auckland island pig as well as of the Göttingen minipig were not functional and therefore unable to infect target cells. This confirms the PERV-null phenotype which renders these animals putative candidates as donors in xenotransplantation. On the other hand, presence of functional PERV-C in SLAd/d haplotype pigs exerts a negative impact on patient safety in xenotransplantation. The suitability of these animals as potent organ donors should be intensively investigated.
In conclusion, PERV of all classes pose a virological risk in xenotransplantation which should not be ignored. Since exclusion of all PERV from donor herds is impossible, generation of transgenic humanized animals lacking genomic infectious PERV represents the best strategy to guarantee patient safety in future life-saving pig-to-human xenotransplantation.
Prokaryotische Organismen werden in ihrer natürlichen Umgebung mit schwankenden Umwelteinflüssen konfrontiert oder müssen gegebenenfalls extremen Bedingungen standhalten. Um sich an derartige Veränderungen anpassen zu können und damit ein weiteres Überleben zu sichern, ist es wichtig neue genetische Informationen zu akquirieren. Die molekulare Basis dieser Anpassung sind Genmutationen, Genverlust, intramolekulare Rekombination und/oder horizontaler Gentransfer. Der vorliegende Selektionsdruck der Umwelt begünstigt schlussendlich die Spezialisierung und damit die Erschließung neuer Standorte aufgrund des Erwerbs neuer metabolischer Eigenschaften, Resistenzgene oder Pathogenitätsfaktoren. Vergleichende Analysen bakterieller Genome, welche auf Analysen der GC-Gehalte, der Codon- und Aminosäurenutzung und der Genlokalisation beruhen, zeigten, dass bei diesem evolutiven Prozess bzw. der Weiterentwicklung der bakteriellen Genome der horizontale Gentransfer als treibende Kraft eine entscheidende Rolle spielt. So indizieren Genomstudien, dass 0-22% der gesamten bakteriellen und 5-15% der archaeellen Gene horizontal erworben wurden, wobei der DNA-Transfer nicht ausschließlich zwischen Vertretern einer Domäne, sondern ebenfalls zwischen Organismen unterschiedlicher Domänen stattgefunden hat. So sind z.B. 24 bzw. 16% der Gene von Genomen hyperthermophiler Organismen wie Thermotoga maritima oder Aquifex aeolicus archaeellen Ursprungs. Ebenso finden sich Gene für Chaperone und DNA-Reparaturenzyme im Genom des thermophilen Bakteriums Thermus thermophilus wieder, welche wahrscheinlich ebenfalls durch horizontalen Gentransfer aus hyperthermophilen und archaeellen Genomen erworben wurden um eine Anpassung an extreme Standorte zu ermöglichen. Durch vergleichende Genomstudien wurde ebenfalls festgestellt, dass die durch horizontalen Gentransfer erworbenen Gene oftmals zu einer Neuorganisation von Transkriptionseinheiten und zu einer veränderten Genomorganisation führten. Dennoch finden sich immer wieder Beispiele von horizontal erworbenen Operonen in den verschiedenen Organismen. Gut charakterisierte Vertreter horizontal übertragener Operone sind dabei z.B. das archaeelle H+-ATPase-Operon, das Operon der Na+-translozierenden NADH:Ubichitonoxidoreduktase oder das Nitratreduktase-Operon.
Man unterscheidet bei dem horizontalen Gentransfer zwischen drei Mechanismen der DNAAufnahme: Konjugation, Transduktion und Transformation. Die DNA-Übertragung durch Konjugation ist durch einen spezifischen Zell-Zell-Kontakt definiert, der durch einen von der Donorzelle ausgehenden, sogenannten F-Pilus hergestellt wird. Die Donorzelle überträgt schließlich Plasmid-kodierte genetische Informationen und oftmals Eigenschaften für die eigenständige Konjugation auf eine Rezipientenzelle. Die Transduktion hingegen beschreibt die DNA-Übertragung von Bakteriophagen auf eine Wirtszelle, wobei hier eine hohe Wirtsspezifität Voraussetzung ist. Die Übertragung der DNA von einer Bakterienzelle in eine andere erfolgt dabei ohne Kontakt der Zellen. Die natürliche Transformation ist definiert als Transfer von freier DNA und ermöglicht damit im Gegensatz zu den beiden ersten spezifischen Mechanismen der DNA-Übertragung ein größeres Spektrum der Verbreitung genetischer Informationen. Freie DNA, welche entweder durch Zelllyse oder Typ-IVSekretion ausgeschieden wird und aufgrund von Adsorption an mineralische Oberflächen über längere Zeiträume stabil in der Umgebung vorliegen kann, kann unter der Voraussetzung der Existenz eines speziellen Aufnahmesystems von Bakterien aufgenommen werden. Mittlerweile sind über 44 Bakterien aus unterschiedlichen taxonomischen Gruppen beschrieben, die eine natürliche Kompetenz ausbilden können. Die bekanntesten Beispiele für natürlich transformierbare Gram-negative Bakterien sind Heliobacter pylori, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Pseudomonas stutzeri, Haemophilus influenzae, T. thermophilus und Acinetobacter baylyi. Auch unter den Gram-positiven Bakterien finden sich einige Vertreter, die natürlich kompetent sind, wie Deinococcus radiodurans, Bacillus subtilis und Streptococcus pneumoniae. Ungeachtet der relevanten Rolle der Transformation im horizontalen Gentransfer, ist über die Struktur und Funktion der komplexen DNA-Aufnahmesysteme wenig bekannt.
Diese Arbeit ist ein detaillierter Bericht über die Forschungsaktivitäten, die ich während meiner Promotion am Max-Planck-Institut für Biophysik durchgeführt habe. Mit dem Aufkommen der direkten Elektronendetektoren erlebte die Transmissionselektronenmikroskopie von gefrorenen hydratisierten Proben (Kryo-EM) einen epochalen Wandel, die sogenannte “Auflösungsrevolution”. Ab den 2010er Jahren ermöglichte die Kommerzialisierung der ersten direkten Detektoren die Erforschung biologischer Phänomene in beispiellosem Detail und machte Kryo-EM zu einer der leistungsstärksten (und gefragtesten) Forschungsmethoden in den Biowissenschaften. Meine Forschung konzentrierte sich auf die Verwendung der Elektronen-Kryotomographie, um zwei herausfordernde Ziele zu erreichen. Das erste bestand darin, die Denaturierung von Proteinen an der Luft-Wasser-Grenzfläche zu untersuchen, und das zweite die molekulare Landschaft eines lichtempfindlichen Chloroplastenvorläufers, des Etioplasten, zu beschreiben. Um die Relevanz, Herausforderungen und Auswirkungen meiner Arbeit zu vermitteln, habe ich diese Arbeit in drei Kapitel unterteilt.
Kapitel eins enthält eine Einführung in die Transmission-Elektronenmikroskopie.
Nach einer kurzen Zusammenfassung der historischen Meilensteine in der Disziplin beschreibe ich die wesentlichen Komponenten des TEM und deren Funktionsweise. Hier lege ich besonderen Wert auf die Struktur elektromagnetischer Linsensysteme, wie sie den Weg der Elektronen beim Durchlaufen der Säule beeinflussen und wie Bilder entstehen. Der hardwarebezogene Teil der Einführung wird durch eine vereinfachte Beschreibung der Elektronendetektoren abgeschlossen, in der ich die revolutionären Aspekte der direkten Elektronendetektoren, mit der Struktur und Funktion von CCD-Detektoren (Charge Coupled Device detector) vergleiche. Als nächstes konzentriere ich mich auf die theoretischen Prinzipien der Bilderzeugung. Um die Hauptphänomene im Zusammenhang mit der Bildqualität in TEM hervorzuheben, stelle ich grundlegende Konzepte wie den Einfluss von Elektronenenergie und optischen Aberrationen vor, gefolgt von einer ausführlicheren Beschreibung des Ursprungs von Kontrast und Rauschen. Der Unterabschnitt schließt mit einigen Überlegungen darüber, wie - und vor allem wie effizient - Detektoren kontinuierliche Elektronenwellen in diskrete Bereiche (Pixel) abtasten. Der folgende Unterabschnitt ist der Erfassung und Verarbeitung tomografischer Daten gewidmet. Hier gebe ich eine vereinfachte Beschreibung, wie Kippserien mit dem Mikroskop erfasst werden und wie die Rohdaten zu einer dreidimensionalen Darstellung der Probe verarbeitet werden. Der Einfluss der Neigungsgeometrie und der Dosisverteilung auf die Rekonstruktionsqualität wird ebenfalls diskutiert. Der zweite Teil des Unterabschnitts befasst sich mit der Strukturbestimmung durch Subtomogramm-Mittelung und der Errechnung der Auflösung von Kryo-EM-Rekonstruktion. Zuletzt schließe ich das Kapitel mit einer Beschreibung der Vorbereitung biologischer Proben für die Kryo-EM-Bildgebung mit einigen abschließenden Bemerkungen zur Dynamik und den Grenzen der Vitrifizierung ab.
Kapitel zwei folgt dem Thema der Kryo-Präparation biologischer Proben mit der Untersuchung der Denaturierung von Proteinen an der Luft-Wasser-Grenzfläche.
Im Einführungsabschnitt skizziere ich die wichtigsten Aspekte dieses Phänomens. Frühe Experimente zum Verhalten von Proteinen in Lösung zeigten ihre Neigung, aus der Lösung zu ihrer Grenzfläche mit der Atmosphäre zu diffundieren. Hier bilden sie meist unlösliche Schichten denaturierter Fibrillen Es wurde vorgeschlagen, dass die Korrelation zwischen Proteindenaturierung und Kontakt mit der Grenzfläche auf einen allmählichen Entfaltungsprozess zurückzuführen ist, bei dem Tausende von Wechselwirkungen pro Sekunde zu einer immer größeren strukturellen Schädigung führen würden. Ein direkter Beweis für diesen Mechanismus wurde jedoch nie dokumentiert. Um einen tieferen Einblick in die Dynamik an der Luft-Wasser-Grenzfläche zu erhalten, sammelte ich Kryotomogramme vitrifizierter Präparate der Fettsäuresynthase (FAS, Fatty Acid Synthase) aus Hefe. Im ersten Unterabschnitt der Ergebnisse beschreibe ich, wie die biochemische und Negativkontrastierung-TEM-Analyse von FAS-Fraktionen zeigte, dass der Komplex während des gesamten Reinigungsverfahrens intakt und katalytisch aktiv blieb. Nach der Vitrifizierung ergab die Einzelpartikelanalyse jedoch, dass 90% aller Komplexe stark beschädigt waren. Die tomographische Rekonstruktion derselben Proben zeigte, dass alle FAS-Komplexe an die Luft-Wasser-Grenzfläche gebunden waren. Die Seite des Moleküls, die der Grenzfläche ausgesetzt war, schien abgeflacht zu sein, während die Seite, in der wässrigen Phase, ihre native Struktur beibehielt. Die Mittelung der Subtomogramme bestätigte, dass eine Seite von fast 90% der Partikel stark beschädigt war. Durch den Vergleich der Ausrichtung dieser beschädigten Seite mit der Position eines Rechenmodells der Luft-Wasser-Grenzfläche konnte ich nachweisen, dass sie perfekt übereinstimmen, was den ersten direkten Beweis dafür liefert, dass die Wechselwirkung mit der Luft-Wasser-Grenzfläche die lokale Denaturierung großer Proteinkomplexe herbeiführt.
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In mitochondria, biogenesis of oxidase is a crucial process involving the participation of an array of assembly factors. Studying the process of biogenesis in eukaryotes is highly complicated due to the presence and partaking of two genetic systems. Employing a bacterial model such as Paracoccus denitrificans that utilizes only one genetic system enables easy studying of the assembly process. The aa3 cytochrome c oxidase of P. denitrificans shows high structural and functional homology to its mitochondrial counterpart despite its simple subunit composition. The assembly of the core subunits I and II that house the active redox centers (heme a, and heme a3.CuB centre in subunit I; and the binuclear CuA centre in subunit II) along with the chaperons responsibly for their incorporation form the crux of this work. This work concentrates particularly on CtaG, a chaperone previously speculated to be involved in the delivery of copper to the CuB center in subunit I. As the full length structure of CtaG or its structural homologues have not been solved, attempts were made to obtain high-diffracting crystals of CtaG by heterologously expressing it in E. coli. Growth media, expression strains and induction parameters were some of the conditions screened in order to obtain optimal yield. Additives, pH and detergent were screened to yield a homogeneous preparation of CtaG. Crystallization trials were conducted by employing the sitting drop, vapour diffusion, method and later the bicelles were employed. Preliminary crystals obtained were further optimized employing seeding, detergent and additives, to improve diffraction. The diffraction improved from 30 Å to 15 Å. BN PAGE (Blue Native Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis) analysis and cross-linking studies were undertaken to decipher the oligomeric condition of CtaG. Both the methods indicate that the protein is a dimer under native conditions. To study the importance of CtaG in the process of oxidase assembly, two deletion mutants were obtained from the lab; one with only ctaG deleted and the other with ctaG and most of the upstream ORF. The effect of the deletion was assayed on the assembly and activity of oxidase. The deletion mutants showed residual activity of approx. 20 %, while displaying a very low heme signal (both in membranes and in purified COX). In order to exclude polar effects arising due to gene manipulation, complementation strains were prepared, reintroducing ctaG alone into both the deletion strains. Complementation strains, where only ctaG was deleted and re-introduced assayed for COX activity showed a restoration in activity to approx. 70 %. Further, calculating the heme:protein ratio, the deletion strains displayed a value of 7 nmol/mg of oxidase which was increased to wild type levels of 16 nmol/mg in the complementation strains. To further confirm the absence of the copper in subunit I, total reflection X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy analysis was carried out, which showed a decrease in the copper content in the deletion strain, restored on complementation. The strain lacking in the ORF and ctaG when complemented with ctaG alone illustrated no increase in activity or heme signal in comparison to that of the deletion strain. These point at a possible role for ORF in the assembly of COX, which is still absent in the complementation strains. To further characterize the ORF, a series of bioinformatical analysis was carried out, the results from which were insufficient to characterize the ORF conclusively. In order to enlist the proteins involved in the biosynthesis of COX, two independent approaches were employed. Two-dimensional gel examinations of solubilised membranes from untreated and cross-linked cells were analyzed by Western blotting. The CtaG-COX interaction was observed in untreated membranes, which was additionally strengthened by cross-linking. To further confirm this association, pull-down assays were done employing protein A coated magnetic beads coated with different antibodies and incubated with solubilised membranes derived from untreated or cross-linked cells. The elutions were assayed by Western blotting and confirmed for the CtaG-COX interaction. These fractions were further analysed by mass spectrometry to identify other chaperons involved in biogenesis of oxidase. Along with CtaG, I also noticed Sco, Surf1c and other factors involved in the recruitment and transport of heme (CtaB, CtaA, and Ccm proteins). Interestingly, protein components of both ribosomal subunits and protein translocation factors were observed, which indicated a co-translational approach for co-factor insertion into COX.
Disturbances in lipid metabolism are responsible for many chronic disorders, such as type 2 diabetes and atherosclerosis. Regulation of lipid metabolism occurs by activated transcription factors peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor δ (PPARδ) and liver X receptor α (LXRα) mediating transcription of different target genes involved in regulation of fatty acid uptake and oxidation or cellular cholesterol homeostasis. This is especially relevant for the macrophages, since pathways regulated by PPARδ and LXRα affect foam cell formation, a process driving the progression of atherosclerotic lesion. AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) plays a central role in energy homeostasis in every type of eukaryotic cell, but its role in human macrophages, particularly with regard to lipid metabolism, is not precisely defined yet. Thus, I investigated the impact of AMPK activity on PPARδ and LXRα and the expression of their target genes involved in fatty acid oxidation (FAO) and cholesterol metabolism.
As PPARδ has been described as a potential target for prevention and treatment of several disorders and AMPK as interesting drug target for diabetes and metabolic syndrome, the aim of the first part of my studies was to investigate their interaction in primary human macrophages. Completing the first challenge successfully, I was able to establish a lentiviral transduction system for constitutively active AMPK (consisting of a truncated catalytic AMPKα1 subunit bearing an activating T198D mutation) in primary human macrophages.
Using genome-wide microarray analysis of gene expression, I demonstrate FAO as the strongest affected pathway during combined AMPKα1 overexpression and PPARδ activation.
The most influenced genes were validated by quantitative PCR as well as by Western analysis. I found that AMPK increases the expression of FAO-associated genes targeted by PPARδ. Corroborating the results obtained using AMPKα1 overexpression, PPARδ target gene expression was increased not only by PPARδ agonist GW501516, but also by pharmacological allosteric AMPK activator A-769662. Additional enhancement of target gene mRNA expression was achieved upon co-activation of PPARδ and AMPK. Silencing PPARδ expression increased basal expression of target genes, confirming the repressive nature of ligand-free PPARδ, abolishing the increased target gene expression upon AMPK or PPARδ activation. Measurements of triglyceride contents of human macrophages incubated with VLDL following PPARδ activation demonstrated a reduction of intracellular triglyceride accumulation in cells, which may reflect the enhancement of fat catabolism.
In the second part of my studies, I concentrated on the regulation of cholesterol transporter ATP-binding cassette transporter A1 (ABCA1) expression by AMPK. ABCA1 facilitates
cholesterol efflux from macrophages thus, preventing atherosclerosis progression. For the first time, AMPK implication in the regulation of the ABCA1 pathway could be presented. Both AMPK overexpression and activation lead to significantly increased ABCA1 expression, whereas AMPKα1 knock-down strongly reduced this effect. Besides, I was able to prove an enhanced activity of ABCA1 during AMPK activation in human THP-1 macrophages by measuring cholesterol efflux into apolipoprotein AI-containing medium.
Previous findings showed regulation of ABCA1 by LXRα. I confirmed these results by silencing experiments indicating an essential role of LXRα in ABCA1 regulation pathway.
Here, ABCA1 mRNA as well as protein expression were positively mediated by LXRα. LXRα activation elevated ABCA1 levels, whereas its silencing down-regulated this effect.
Interestingly, ABCA1 was found to be regulated only by LXRα and not through LXRα. At the same time, knock-down of PPARδ, -γ or -δ, which may be also involved in the regulation of LXR/ABCA1 axis, did not influence the activation of ABCA1 expression by an AMPK activator. To confirm that LXRE on Abca1 promoter is essential for ABCA1 regulation, I performed luciferase reporter assay using constructs based on Abca1 promoter with or without LXRE mutation. Mutation of LXRE abolished reporter activity, whereas AMPK activation increased luciferase activity of wild-type LXRE construct. Furthermore, I demonstrate AMPK-dependent LXRα binding to the LXRE site of Abca1 promoter using the method of chromatin immunoprecipitation. AMPK activation significantly increased, whereas silencing of AMPK significantly attenuated LXRα binding, indicating AMPK as one of the most important regulators of ABCA1 expression.
In summary, I provided an evidence for AMPK involvement into lipid and cholesterol metabolism in human macrophages showing the regulation of PPARδ and LXRα target genes. The understanding of AMPK and PPARδ interaction allows the development of new approaches for treatment of metabolic syndrome and related diseases. Increased FAO during the activation of both proteins may exhibit better therapeutic benefit. On the other hand, I have shown the impact of AMPK activation on ABCA1 via LXRα up-regulation leading to increased cholesterol efflux in human macrophages for the first time. These findings thus may impact future improving of anti-atherosclerosis therapies.