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Inspiration for artificial biologically inspired computing is often drawn from neural systems. This article shows how to analyze neural systems using information theory with the aim of obtaining constraints that help to identify the algorithms run by neural systems and the information they represent. Algorithms and representations identified this way may then guide the design of biologically inspired computing systems. The material covered includes the necessary introduction to information theory and to the estimation of information-theoretic quantities from neural recordings. We then show how to analyze the information encoded in a system about its environment, and also discuss recent methodological developments on the question of how much information each agent carries about the environment either uniquely or redundantly or synergistically together with others. Last, we introduce the framework of local information dynamics, where information processing is partitioned into component processes of information storage, transfer, and modification – locally in space and time. We close by discussing example applications of these measures to neural data and other complex systems.
Welche Wissenschaft könnte es sich leisten, dass ihre Grundlagen im Universitätsstudium nur am Rande, als Wahlfach und ohne zwingende Prüfungsrelevanz gelehrt werden? Im Fall der Rechtswissenschaft ist schon die Wissenschaftlichkeit keine Selbstverständlichkeit, sondern um diesen Anspruch wird im Bermudadreieck von dogmatischer Rechtsanwendungswissenschaft, topisch-rhetorischer Argumentationskunst und methodisch geleiteter Systematisierung immer aufs Neue gerungen. Die Vermittlung der rechtswissenschaftlichen Methoden und Dogmatik in der juristischen Ausbildung sieht sich mit den Anforderungen und Zwängen der Rechtspraxis konfrontiert – das bleibt nicht ohne Wirkung auf die universitäre Rechtswissenschaft, die in der Konsequenz als "Professionswissenschaft" gedeutet wird. Vor dem Hintergrund der starken staatlichen Determinanten für die Juristenausbildung drängt sich die Frage auf, ob nicht die Normgeber des Ausbildungsrechts, einschließlich der Universitäten selbst, in naheliegender Geradlinigkeit die Ausbildung von Praktikern des Rechts anstreben und diese Aufgabe eigentlich seit jeher als Vermittlung der Kunst bzw. Technik richtiger Rechtsanwendung verstehen, auch wenn dies nicht dem Humboldt’schen Ideal einer Qualifikation durch Wissenschaft entspricht. Das mag erklären, wieso die sogen. Grundlagenfächer in der deutschen Juristenausbildung einen schweren Stand haben. ...
Synesthesia is a phenomenon in which additional perceptual experiences are elicited by sensory stimuli or cognitive concepts. Synesthetes possess a unique type of phenomenal experiences not directly triggered by sensory stimulation. Therefore, for better understanding of consciousness it is relevant to identify the mental and physiological processes that subserve synesthetic experience. In the present work we suggest several reasons why synesthesia has merit for research on consciousness. We first review the research on the dynamic and rapidly growing field of the studies of synesthesia. We particularly draw attention to the role of semantics in synesthesia, which is important for establishing synesthetic associations in the brain. We then propose that the interplay between semantics and sensory input in synesthesia can be helpful for the study of the neural correlates of consciousness, especially when making use of ambiguous stimuli for inducing synesthesia. Finally, synesthesia-related alterations of brain networks and functional connectivity can be of merit for the study of consciousness.
Reading is not only "cold" information processing, but involves affective and aesthetic processes that go far beyond what current models of word recognition, sentence processing, or text comprehension can explain. To investigate such "hot" reading processes, standardized instruments that quantify both psycholinguistic and emotional variables at the sublexical, lexical, inter-, and supralexical levels (e.g., phonological iconicity, word valence, arousal-span, or passage suspense) are necessary. One such instrument, the Berlin Affective Word List (BAWL) has been used in over 50 published studies demonstrating effects of lexical emotional variables on all relevant processing levels (experiential, behavioral, neuronal). In this paper, we first present new data from several BAWL studies. Together, these studies examine various views on affective effects in reading arising from dimensional (e.g., valence) and discrete emotion features (e.g., happiness), or embodied cognition features like smelling. Second, we extend our investigation of the complex issue of affective word processing to words characterized by a mixture of affects. These words entail positive and negative valence, and/or features making them beautiful or ugly. Finally, we discuss tentative neurocognitive models of affective word processing in the light of the present results, raising new issues for future studies.
Over the last decade, the prospect of improving or maintaining cognitive functioning has provoked a steadily increasing number of cognitive training studies. Central target populations are individuals at risk for a disadvantageous development, such as older adults exhibiting cognitive decline or children with learning impairments. They rely on cognitive resources to meet the challenges of an independent life in old age or requirements at school.
To support daily cognitive functioning, training outcomes need to generalize to other cognitive abilities. Such transfer effects are, however, highly discussed. For example, recent meta-analyses on working memory training differed in the conclusion on the presence (Au et al., 2015; Karbach and Verhaeghen, 2014) or absence of transfer effects (Melby-Lervåg and Hulme, 2013). Usually training-specific design factors such as type, intensity, duration, and feedback routines are discussed as reasons for such inconsistent findings. However, even individuals participating in exactly the same training regime highly differ in their training outcomes. We argue that it is time to study the individual development during trainings to understand these differential outcomes. It is time to have a closer look at the intraindividual training data.
Working memory denotes the ability to retain stimuli in mind that are no longer physically present and to perform mental operations on them. Electro- and magnetoencephalography allow investigating the short-term maintenance of acoustic stimuli at a high temporal resolution. Studies investigating working memory for non-spatial and spatial auditory information have suggested differential roles of regions along the putative auditory ventral and dorsal streams, respectively, in the processing of the different sound properties. Analyses of event-related potentials have shown sustained, memory load-dependent deflections over the retention periods. The topography of these waves suggested an involvement of modality-specific sensory storage regions. Spectral analysis has yielded information about the temporal dynamics of auditory working memory processing of individual stimuli, showing activation peaks during the delay phase whose timing was related to task performance. Coherence at different frequencies was enhanced between frontal and sensory cortex. In summary, auditory working memory seems to rely on the dynamic interplay between frontal executive systems and sensory representation regions.
Previous studies used a text-fading procedure as a training tool with the goal to increase silent reading fluency (i.e., proficient reading rate and comprehension). In recently published studies, this procedure resulted in lasting reading enhancements for adult and adolescent research samples. However, studies working with children reported mixed results. While reading rate improvements were observable for Dutch reading children in a text-fading training study, reading fluency improvements in standardized reading tests post-training attributable to the fading manipulation were not detectable. These results raise the question of whether text-fading training is not effective for children or whether research design issues have concealed possible transfer effects. Hence, the present study sought to investigate possible transfer effects resulting from a text-fading based reading training program, using a modified research design. Over a period of 3 weeks, two groups of German third-graders read sentences either with an adaptive text-fading procedure or at their self-paced reading rate. A standardized test measuring reading fluency at the word, sentence, and text level was conducted pre- and post-training. Text level reading fluency improved for both groups equally. Post-training gains at the word level were found for the text-fading group, however, no significant interaction between groups was revealed for word reading fluency. Sentence level reading fluency gains were found for the text-fading group, which significantly differed from the group of children reading at their self-paced reading routine. These findings provide evidence for the efficacy of text-fading as a training method for sentence reading fluency improvement also for children.
Gelehrte bedürfen einander. Eine soziale Gruppe, die es nicht als ihre vornehmste Aufgabe ansieht, sich die materiellen Grundlagen des Lebens zu erarbeiten, ist auf Solidarität angewiesen. Nicht immer steht ein reicher Gönner, ein Mäzen, ein Patron zur Verfügung, der gewillt ist, antiquarische, philologische oder sonstige "zweckfreie" Interessen zu fördern. Der vom Schicksal Benachteiligte hofft in dem Fall auf die Unterstützung derer, die seine Interessen teilen und die materielle Bedrängnis aus eigenem Erleben nachvollziehen können. Gelehrte bedürfen ferner auch insoweit einander, als in der Regel nicht alle für die Realisierung eines wissenschaftlichen Vorhabens benötigten Informationen, Schriften und Artefakte vor Ort vorhanden sind. Also begibt man sich auf Reisen, zieht in ferne Länder in der Hoffnung, dort Gleichgesinnte zu treffen, die im Besitz der erstrebten ideellen Güter sind und dazu bereit, andere daran teilhaben zu lassen. ...
Dass die in den letzten Jahren stattfindende Ausweitung der Rechtsgeschichte(n) durch globale und transnationale Perspektiven gerade in der Völkerrechtsgeschichte auf besonders fruchtbaren Boden fällt, liegt auf der Hand. Denn Regulierung, Normierung und Legitimation überregionaler Beziehungen bieten sich wie kaum ein anderes Themenfeld für eine Horizonterweiterung über den Nationalstaat hinaus an. Aus einer vornehmlich europäischen Völkerrechtsgeschichte werden damit Völkerrechtsgeschichten in der Dialektik von lokalen und globalen Bezugspunkten. ...