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Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurden grundlegende Eigenschaften von GEM-Verstärkungsstrukturen untersucht. Dies waren der Einfluss des Alignmenteffektes auf die Reproduzierbarkeit von Messungen, die Elektronenextraktionseffizienz von GEMs im allgemeinen und die Auswirkungen von Druckschwankungen auf die Gasverstärkung. Weiterhin wurden verschiedene vierlagige GEM-Verstärkungssysteme mit einer MP-GEM an erster Stelle in Hinblick auf Ionenrückfluss und Energieauflösung untersucht.
Der Alignmenteffekt ist noch nicht vollkommen verstanden und verlangt weitere Untersuchungen. Was aber definitiv gesagt werden kann ist, dass das Drehen der GEMs um 90° die Reproduzierbarkeit der Messergebnisse sicherstellt.
Die unterschiedlichen Elektronenextraktionseffizienzen der verschiedenen GEM-Typen sind noch unverstanden. Auch wenn die grundsätzliche Zunahme der Extraktion mit zunehmenden Transferfeld verständlich ist, so bleibt vor allem das Verhalten einer LP-GEM in diesem Kontext bis jetzt unerklärlich.
Die Versuche mit einer MP-GEM an erster Stelle einer vierlagigen Verstärkungsstruktur haben sich als keine Verbesserung im Vergleich zu den S-Konfigurationen herausgestellt. Auch wenn manche gefundenen Einstellungen die Kriterien von einem IBF von weniger als 1 % und einem σ(55Fe) von weniger als 12 % gleichzeitig erfüllen, liegen diese Messpunkte so knapp an den definierten Grenzen, dass sie nicht für den Betrieb in der Spurendriftkammer von ALICE geeignet sind. Eine Erkenntnis, die trotzdem gewonnen werden konnte, ist, dass sich das Verhalten von verschiedenen Konfigurationen verstehen lässt. So ist die beste untersuchte Konfiguration die MP-LP-LP-S-Konfiguration gewesen, danach folgte die MP-S-LP-S und als schlechteste hat die MP-S-LP-SP-Konfiguration abgeschnitten. Dies ist genau die gleiche Reihenfolge, wie sie auch bei den S-Konfigurationen auftritt: S-LP-LP-S, dann S-S-LP-S und danach S-S-LP-SP. Ein wichtiger Schritt in einem guten Kompromiss zwischen Ionenrückfluss und σ(55Fe), scheinen zwei LP-GEMs an zweiter und dritter Stelle zu sein und weniger der Lochabstand der letzten GEM.
Die Druckabhängigkeit der Gasverstärkung hat einen großen Einfluss auf die Verstärkung und damit auf die Reproduzierbarkeit von Messungen. Bei einem Höhenunterschied von ca. 400 m ergibt sich eine Änderung der Verstärkung von ca. 35 %. Zusätzlich wird dieser Effekt von lokalen Wetterbedingungen überlagert. Der Einfluss des Luftdruckes kann jedoch mit dem Fit in Abbildung 43 berücksichtigt und damit herausgerechnet werden
During RUN3 (2021-2023) of the Large Hadron Collider, the Time Projection Chamber (TPC) of ALICE will be operated with quadruple stacks of Gas Electron Multipliers (GEMs). This technology will allow to overcome the rate limitation due to the gated operation of the Multi-Wire Proportional Chambers (MWPCs) used in RUN1 (2009-2013) and RUN2 (2015-2018).
As part of the Upgrade project, long-term irradiation tests, so called "ageing tests", have been carried out. A test setup with a detector using a quadruple stack of 10x10cm2 GEMs was built and operated in Ar-CO2 and Ne-CO2-N2 gas mixtures. The detector performance such as gas gain and energy resolution were monitored continuously. In addition, outgassing tests of materials used for the assembly process of the upgraded TPC were performed. To reach the expected dose of the GEM-based TPC, the detector was operated at much higher gains than the TPC. It was found, that the GEMs could keep their performance within the projected lifetime of the TPC. Most of the tested materials showed no negative impact on the detector. For the tested epoxy adhesive no certain conclusion could be drawn.
At much higher doses than expected for the upgraded TPC, a new phenomenon was observed, which changed the hole geometry of the GEMs and led to a degradation of the energy resolution. Even though its occurrence is not expected during the lifetime of the GEM-based TPC, simulations were carried out to study this effect more systematically. The simulations confirmed, that a change of the hole geometries of the GEMs, lead to an increase of the local gain variation, which results in a decrease of the energy resolution.
Furthermore the effect of methane as quench gas on GEMs was studied, even though this gas is not foreseen to be used in the TPC. From ageing tests with single-wire proportional counters it is well known that hydrocarbons are produced in the plasma of the avalanches, which cover the electrodes and lead to a degradation of the detector performance. Even though GEMs have a quite different geometry, the ageing tests showed, that also this technology tends to methane-induced ageing. A loss of gas gain as well as a degradation of the energy resolution due to deposits on the electrodes was monitored. A qualitative and quantitative comparison between ageing in GEMs and proportional counters was performed.
The Chiral Magnetic Wave (CMW) phenomenon is essential to provide insights into the strong interaction in QCD, the properties of the quark-gluon plasma, and the topological characteristics of the early universe, offering a deeper understanding of fundamental physics in high-energy collisions. Measurements of the charge-dependent anisotropic flow coefficients are studied in Pb-Pb collisions at center-of-mass energy per nucleon-nucleon collision sNN−−−√= 5.02 TeV to probe the CMW. In particular, the slope of the normalized difference in elliptic (v2) and triangular (v3) flow coefficients of positively and negatively charged particles as a function of their event-wise normalized number difference, is reported for inclusive and identified particles. The slope rNorm3 is found to be larger than zero and to have a magnitude similar to rNorm2, thus pointing to a large background contribution for these measurements. Furthermore, rNorm2 can be described by a blast wave model calculation that incorporates local charge conservation. In addition, using the event shape engineering technique yields a fraction of CMW (fCMW) contribution to this measurement which is compatible with zero. This measurement provides the very first upper limit for fCMW, and in the 10-60% centrality interval it is found to be 26% (38%) at 95% (99.7%) confidence level.
The first measurement of the e+e− pair production at midrapidity and low invariant mass in central Pb−Pb collisions at sNN−−−√=5.02 TeV at the LHC is presented. The yield of e+e− pairs is compared with a cocktail of expected hadronic decay contributions in the invariant mass (mee) and pair transverse momentum (pT,ee) ranges mee<3.5 GeV/c2 and pT,ee<8 GeV/c. For 0.18<mee<0.5 GeV/c2 the ratio of data to the cocktail of hadronic contributions without ρ mesons amounts to 1.42±0.12 (stat.)±0.17 (syst.)±0.12 (cocktail) and 1.44±0.12 (stat.)±0.17 (syst.)+0.17−0.21 (cocktail), including or not including medium effects in the estimation of the heavy-flavor background, respectively. It is consistent with predictions from two different models for an additional contribution of thermal e+e− pairs from the hadronic and partonic phases. In the intermediate-mass range (1.2<mee<2.6 GeV/c2), the pair transverse impact parameter of the e+e− pairs (DCAee) is used for the first time in Pb−Pb collisions to separate displaced dielectrons from heavy-flavor hadron decays from a possible (thermal) contribution produced at the interaction point. The data are consistent with a suppression of e+e− pairs from cc¯¯ and an additional prompt component. Finally, the first direct-photon measurement in the 10% most central Pb−Pb collisions at sNN−−−√=5.02 TeV is reported via the study of virtual direct photons in the transverse momentum range 1<pT<5 GeV/c. A model including prompt photons, as well as photons from the pre-equilibrium and fluid-dynamic phases, can reproduce the result, while being at the upper edge of the data uncertainties.
Results on the transverse spherocity dependence of light-flavor particle production (π, K, p, ϕ, K∗0, K0S, Λ, Ξ) at midrapidity in high-multiplicity pp collisions at s√=13 TeV were obtained with the ALICE apparatus. The transverse spherocity estimator (SpT=1O) categorizes events by their azimuthal topology. Utilizing narrow selections on SpT=1O, it is possible to contrast particle production in collisions dominated by many soft initial interactions with that observed in collisions dominated by one or more hard scatterings. Results are reported for two multiplicity estimators covering different pseudorapidity regions. The SpT=1O estimator is found to effectively constrain the hardness of the events when the midrapidity (|η|<0.8) estimator is used. The production rates of strange particles are found to be slightly higher for soft isotropic topologies, and severely suppressed in hard jet-like topologies. These effects are more pronounced for hadrons with larger mass and strangeness content, and observed when the topological selection is done within a narrow multiplicity interval. This demonstrates that an important aspect of the universal scaling of strangeness enhancement with final-state multiplicity is that high-multiplicity collisions are dominated by soft, isotropic processes. On the contrary, strangeness production in events with jet-like processes is significantly reduced. The results presented in this article are compared with several QCD-inspired Monte Carlo event generators. Models that incorporate a two-component phenomenology, either through mechanisms accounting for string density, or thermal production, are able to describe the observed strangeness enhancement as a function of SpT=1O.
Measurements of charged-particle production in pp, p−Pb, and Pb−Pb collisions in the toward, away, and transverse regions with the ALICE detector are discussed. These regions are defined event-by-event relative to the azimuthal direction of the charged trigger particle, which is the reconstructed particle with the largest transverse momentum (ptrigT) in the range 8<ptrigT<15 GeV/c. The toward and away regions contain the primary and recoil jets, respectively; both regions are accompanied by the underlying event (UE). In contrast, the transverse region perpendicular to the direction of the trigger particle is dominated by the so-called UE dynamics, and includes also contributions from initial- and final-state radiation. The relative transverse activity classifier, RT=NTch/⟨NTch⟩, is used to group events according to their UE activity, where NTch is the charged-particle multiplicity per event in the transverse region and ⟨NTch⟩ is the mean value over the whole analysed sample. The energy dependence of the RT distributions in pp collisions at s√=2.76, 5.02, 7, and 13 TeV is reported, exploring the Koba-Nielsen-Olesen (KNO) scaling properties of the multiplicity distributions. The first measurements of charged-particle pT spectra as a function of RT in the three azimuthal regions in pp, p−Pb, and Pb−Pb collisions at sNN−−−√=5.02 TeV are also reported. Data are compared with predictions obtained from the event generators PYTHIA 8 and EPOS LHC. This set of measurements is expected to contribute to the understanding of the origin of collective-like effects in small collision systems (pp and p−Pb).
Measurements of charged-particle production in pp, p−Pb, and Pb−Pb collisions in the toward, away, and transverse regions with the ALICE detector are discussed. These regions are defined event-by-event relative to the azimuthal direction of the charged trigger particle, which is the reconstructed particle with the largest transverse momentum (ptrigT) in the range 8<ptrigT<15 GeV/c. The toward and away regions contain the primary and recoil jets, respectively; both regions are accompanied by the underlying event (UE). In contrast, the transverse region perpendicular to the direction of the trigger particle is dominated by the so-called UE dynamics, and includes also contributions from initial- and final-state radiation. The relative transverse activity classifier, RT=NTch/⟨NTch⟩, is used to group events according to their UE activity, where NTch is the charged-particle multiplicity per event in the transverse region and ⟨NTch⟩ is the mean value over the whole analysed sample. The energy dependence of the RT distributions in pp collisions at s√=2.76, 5.02, 7, and 13 TeV is reported, exploring the Koba-Nielsen-Olesen (KNO) scaling properties of the multiplicity distributions. The first measurements of charged-particle pT spectra as a function of RT in the three azimuthal regions in pp, p−Pb, and Pb−Pb collisions at sNN−−−√=5.02 TeV are also reported. Data are compared with predictions obtained from the event generators PYTHIA 8 and EPOS LHC. This set of measurements is expected to contribute to the understanding of the origin of collective-like effects in small collision systems (pp and p−Pb).
Long- and short-range correlations for pairs of charged particles are studied via two-particle angular correlations in pp collisions at s√=13 TeV and p−Pb collisions at sNN−−−√=5.02 TeV. The correlation functions are measured as a function of relative azimuthal angle Δφ and pseudorapidity separation Δη for pairs of primary charged particles within the pseudorapidity interval |η|<0.9 and the transverse-momentum interval 1<pT<4 GeV/c. Flow coefficients are extracted for the long-range correlations (1.6<|Δη|<1.8) in various high-multiplicity event classes using the low-multiplicity template fit method. The method is used to subtract the enhanced yield of away-side jet fragments in high-multiplicity events. These results show decreasing flow signals toward lower multiplicity events. Furthermore, the flow coefficients for events with hard probes, such as jets or leading particles, do not exhibit any significant changes compared to those obtained from high-multiplicity events without any specific event selection criteria. The results are compared with hydrodynamic-model calculations, and it is found that a better understanding of the initial conditions is necessary to describe the results, particularly for low-multiplicity events.
Long- and short-range correlations for pairs of charged particles are studied via two-particle angular correlations in pp collisions at √sNN = 13 TeV and p–Pb collisions at √s = 5.02 TeV. The correlation functions are measured as a function of relative azimuthal angle ∆φ and pseudorapidity separation ∆η for pairs of primary charged particles within the pseudorapidity interval |η| < 0.9 and the transverse-momentum interval 1 < pT < 4 GeV/c. Flow coefficients are extracted for the long-range correlations (1.6 < |∆η| < 1.8) in various high-multiplicity event classes using the low-multiplicity template fit method. The method is used to subtract the enhanced yield of away-side jet fragments in high-multiplicity events. These results show decreasing flow signals toward lower multiplicity events. Furthermore, the flow coefficients for events with hard probes, such as jets or leading particles, do not exhibit any significant changes compared to those obtained from high-multiplicity events without any specific event selection criteria. The results are compared with hydrodynamic-model calculations, and it is found that a better understanding of the initial conditions is necessary to describe the results, particularly for low-multiplicity events.