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Irrigation is the most important water use sector accounting for about 70% of the global freshwater withdrawals and 90% of consumptive water uses. While the extent of irrigation and related water uses are reported in statistical databases or estimated by model simulations, information on the source of irrigation water is scarce and very scattered. Here we present a new global inventory on the extent of areas irrigated with groundwater, surface water or non-conventional sources, and we determine the related consumptive water uses. The inventory provides data for 15 038 national and sub-national administrative units. Irrigated area was provided by census-based statistics from international and national organizations. A global model was then applied to simulate consumptive water uses for irrigation by water source. Globally, area equipped for irrigation is currently about 301 million ha of which 38% are equipped for irrigation with groundwater. Total consumptive groundwater use for irrigation is estimated as 545 km3 yr−1, or 43% of the total consumptive irrigation water use of 1277 km3 yr−1. The countries with the largest extent of areas equipped for irrigation with groundwater, in absolute terms, are India (39 million ha), China (19 million ha) and the USA (17 million ha). Groundwater use in irrigation is increasing both in absolute terms and in percentage of total irrigation, leading in places to concentrations of users exploiting groundwater storage at rates above groundwater recharge. Despite the uncertainties associated with statistical data available to track patterns and growth of groundwater use for irrigation, the inventory presented here is a major step towards a more informed assessment of agricultural water use and its consequences for the global water cycle.
Tubular carbonate concretions of up to 1 m in length and perpendicular to bedding, occur abundantly in the Upper Pliensbachian (upper Amaltheus margaritatus Zone, Gibbosus Subzone) in outcrops (Fontaneilles section) in the vicinity of Rivière-sûr-Tarn, southern France. Stable isotope analyses of these concretions show negative δ13C values that decrease from the rim to the center from −18.8‰ to −25.7‰ (V-PDB), but normal marine δ18O values (−1.8‰). Carbon isotope analyses of Late Pliensbachian bulk carbonate (matrix) samples from the Fontaneilles section show clearly decreasing C-isotope values across the A. margaritatus Zone, from +1‰ to −3‰ (V-PDB). Isotope analyses of coeval belemnite rostra do not document such a negative C-isotope trend with values remaining stable around +2‰ (V-PDB). Computer tomographic (CT) scanning of the tubular concretions show multiple canals that are lined or filled entirely with pyrite. Previously, the formation of these concretions with one, two, or more central tubes, has been ascribed to the activity of an enigmatic organism, possibly with annelid or arthropod affinities, known as Tisoa siphonalis. Our results suggest tisoan structures are abiogenic. Based on our geochemical analyses and sedimentological observations we suggest that these concretions formed as a combination of the anaerobic oxidation of methane (AOM) and sulfate reduction within the sediment. Fluids rich in methane and/or hydrocarbons likely altered local bulk rock carbon isotope records, but did not affect the global carbon cycle. Interestingly, Tisoa siphonalis has been described from many locations in the Grands Causses Basin in southern France, and from northern France and Luxemburg, always occurring at the same stratigraphic level. Upper Pliensbachian authigenic carbonates thus possibly cover an area of many thousand square kilometers. Greatly reduced sedimentation rates are needed to explain the stabilization of the sulfate-methane transition zone in the sedimentary column in order for the tubular concretions to form. Late Pliensbachian cooling, reducing run-off, and/or the influx of colder water and more vigorous circulation could be responsible for a halt in sedimentation. At the same time (thermogenic) methane may have destabilized during a major phase of Late Pliensbachian sea level fall. As such Tisoa siphonalis is more than a geological curiosity, and its further study could prove pivotal in understanding Early Jurassic paleoenvironmental change.
Tubular carbonate concretions of up to 1 m in length and perpendicular to bedding, occur abundantly in the Upper Pliensbachian (upper Amaltheus margaritatus Zone, Gibbosus Subzone) in outcrops (Fontaneilles section) in the vicinity of Rivière-sûr-Tarn, southern France. Stable isotope analyses of these concretions show negative delta 13C values that decrease from the rim to the center from - 18.8‰ to - 25.7‰ (V-PDB), but normal marine delta 18 O values (- 1.8‰). Carbon isotope analyses of Late Pliensbachian bulk carbonate (matrix) samples from the Fontaneilles section show clearly decreasing C-isotope values across the A. margaritatus Zone, from +1‰ to - 3‰ (V-PDB). Isotope analyses of coeval belemnite rostra do not document such a negative C-isotope trend with values remaining stable around +2‰ (V-PDB). Computer tomographic (CT) scanning of the tubular concretions show multiple canals that are lined or filled entirely with pyrite. Previously, the formation of these concretions with one, two, or more central tubes, has been ascribed to the activity of an enigmatic organism, possibly with annelid or arthropod affinities, known asTisoa siphonalis. Our results suggest tisoan structures are abiogenic. Based on our geochemical analyses and sedimentological observations we suggest that these concretions formed as a combination of the anaerobic oxidation of methane (AOM) and sulfate reduction within the sediment. Fluids rich in methane and/or hydrocarbons likely altered local bulk rock carbon isotope records, but did not affect the global carbon cycle. Interestingly, Tisoa siphonalis has been described from many locations in the Grands Causses Basin in southern France, and from northern France and Luxemburg, always occurring at the same stratigraphic level. Upper Pliensbachian authigenic carbonates thus possibly cover an area of many thousand square kilometers. Greatly reduced sedimentation rates are needed to explain the stabilization of the sulfate-methane transition zone in the sedimentary column in order for the tubular concretions to form. Late Pliensbachian cooling, reducing run-off, and/or the influx of colder water and more vigorous circulation could be responsible for a halt in sedimentation. At the same time (thermogenic) methane may have destabilized during a major phase of Late Pliensbachian sea level fall. As such Tisoa siphonalis is more than a geological curiosity, and its further study could prove pivotal in understanding Early Jurassic paleoenvironmental change.
Flusssysteme im mediterranen Raum reagieren besonders sensitiv auf Veränderungen von Umweltbedingungen, z.B. durch Neotektonik, Klimaänderungen und Landnutzung. Geowissenschaftler der Goethe-Universität Frankfurt untersuchen in diesem Zusammenhang das Einzugsgebiet des Rio Palancia (Spanien), um über die Erstellung einer Sediment-Massenbilanzierung die Entwicklungsgeschichte des Systems zu erforschen. Zur Identifizierung und Quantifizierung verschiedener Sediment-Ablagerungstypen wurde das Georadarverfahren (GPR) eingesetzt. Ziel dieser Arbeit ist es, am Beispiel fluvialer Lockersedimente das Zustandekommen von Radargrammen noch besser zu verstehen und möglichst viel Information über den Untergrund aus einem Radargramm zu extrahieren. An 30 Standorten wurden GPR-Messungen durchgeführt und mit Geoelektrik und Rammkernsondierungen kombiniert. Die Einführung einer Bearbeitungs- und Auswertesystematik gewährleistet die Vergleichbarkeit von Radardaten unterschiedlicher Standorte. Als Besonderheit werden die Radargramme jeweils auf zwei verschiedene Arten bearbeitet und dargestellt, um sowohl Strukturen herauszuarbeiten als auch die – zumindest relative – Amplitudencharakteristik zu erhalten. Erst dadurch wird eine Auswertung mithilfe der erweiterten Radarstratigraphie-Methode möglich. Diese setzt sich aus der klassischen Radarstratigraphie und der neu entwickelten Reflexionsanalyse zusammen. Dabei werden systematisch Radar-Schichtflächen, Radareinheiten und Radarfazies ermittelt und anschließend die Amplitudengröße, die Polarität und die Breite der Reflexionen betrachtet. Die Radarstratigraphie liefert objektive Erkenntnisse über Form und Verlauf von Untergrundstrukturen, während mithilfe der Reflexionsanalyse Aussagen zu relativen Änderungen von Wassergehalt, Korngrößenverteilung und elektrischer Leitfähigkeit möglich sind. Mithilfe der Radarstratigraphie wurde die Radarantwort verschiedener Sediment-Ablagerungstypen im Untersuchungsgebiet verglichen. Die Radargramme zeigen unterschiedliche Zusammensetzungen von Radarfazies. Eine Unterscheidung und räumliche Abgrenzung verschiedener Ablagerungstypen mit GPR ist somit durchführbar. Die Dielektrizität des Mediums bestimmt, zusammen mit der elektrischen Leitfähigkeit, die Geschwindigkeit und Dämpfung der elektromagnetischen Welle sowie die Reflexionskoeffizienten. Um das Zustandekommen von Radargrammen im Detail nachvollziehen zu können, ist es notwendig, die Dielektrizitätskoeffizienten (DK) der untersuchten Sedimente zum Zeitpunkt der Messung zu kennen und die Abhängigkeit des DK von petrophysikalischen Parametern zu verstehen. Deshalb wurden Proben aus den Rammkernsondierungen entnommen. Im Labor wurden der Real- und Imaginärteil des DK im Radarfrequenzbereich (mit Schwerpunkt auf 200 MHz) in Abhängigkeit von Wassergehalt, Trockendichte, Korngrößenverteilung und Kalkgehalt mithilfe der Plattenkondensatormethode bestimmt. Der DK ist in erster Linie vom Wassergehalt abhängig. Es konnte eine für die Sedimente im Untersuchungsgebiet charakteristische Wassergehalts-DK-Beziehung ermittelt werden. Die resultierende Kurve ist gegenüber entsprechenden in der Fachliteratur zu findenden Beziehungen verschoben, was vermutlich auf die hohen Kalkgehalte der Proben zurückzuführen ist. Für trockene Sedimente wurde eine Korrelation des DK mit der Trockendichte festgestellt. Bei der Bestimmung der Absorptionskoeffizienten fiel auf, dass Proben mit hohem Tonanteil selbst bei geringen Wassergehalten außerordentlich hohe Dämpfungskoeffizienten aufweisen können. Die charakteristische Wassergehalts-DK-Beziehung wurde für Modellierungen von Radardaten genutzt, die dann mit Messdaten verglichen wurden. Über die Modellierung einer einzelnen Radarspur konnte die spezielle Charakteristik der entsprechenden gemessenen Spur erklärt werden, die durch den Einfluss einer dünnen Schicht zustande kommt, deren Mächtigkeit an der Grenze der theoretischen Auflösung für die verwendete Radarfrequenz liegt. Auf Basis der Erkenntnisse aus der erweiterten Radarstratigraphie an einem Radargramm auf fluvialen Lockersedimenten war es zudem möglich, ein komplettes Radargramm zu simulieren. Es gibt das gemessene Radargramm vereinfacht, aber in guter Übereinstimmung wieder. Die Georadarmethode erwies sich als sehr gut geeignet für die Untersuchung, Identifizierung und Quantifizierung fluvialer Sedimente im Palancia-Einzugsgebiet. Die im Rahmen dieser Doktorarbeit entwickelte erweiterte Radarstratigraphie-Methode stellt ein systematisches und weitgehend objektives Verfahren zur Auswertung von Radargrammen dar, das sich auch auf andere Untersuchungsgebiete übertragen lassen sollte. Durch Laboruntersuchungen wurde der Einfluss petrophysikalischer Parameter auf den DK bestimmt. Über die Modellierungen konnten die Ergebnisse großskaliger Geländemessungen mit denen kleinskaliger Labormessungen verknüpft werden. Die insgesamt gewonnenen Erkenntnisse tragen zu einem besseren Verständnis von Radargrammen bei.
Within the present study the occurrence and fate of the organophosphorus flame retardants and plasticizers tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP), tris(2-chloro-1-methylethyl) phosphate (TCPP), tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TDCP), tris(2-butoxyethyl) phosphate (TBEP), tri-iso-butyl phosphate (TiBP), and tri-n-butyl phosphate (TnBP) in precipitation, lake water, surface runoff and groundwater from urban and remote areas in Germany was investigated between June 2007 and October 2009. 255 samples of precipitation, 210 samples of lentic surface water and 72 samples of groundwater were analyzed for the six organophosphates (OPs) by solid phase extraction followed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The research focused on aspects concerning (1) the atmospheric washout of OPs by precipitation, (2) the temporal variation of OP concentrations in precipitation and in lentic surface waters as well as (3) the pollution of groundwater by OPs. The results of the study emphasize the importance of precipitation as an all-season entry-pathway for OPs in the aquatic environment, particularly in densely populated urban environments with high traffic volume and abundant usage of flame-protected products. No seasonal trends were observed for all analytes in precipitation at the urban sampling site. TCPP dominated in all precipitation and storm water holding tank (SWHT) water samples with maximum levels exceeding 1 µg/L. An accumulation of OPs deposited in SWHTs was observed with concentrations often exceeding those observed in wet precipitation. Median concentrations of TCPP (880 ng/L), TDCP (13 ng/L), and TBEP (77 ng/L) at the urban SWHT were more than twice as high as those measured at the urban precipitation sampling site (403 ng/L, 5 ng/L, 21 ng/L) located close to the SWHT. OP levels in more remote lakes were often below or close to the limits of quantitation (LOQ). Nevertheless, TCPP was the substance with the highest median concentration in rural volcanic lakes (7–18 ng/L) indicating an atmospheric transport of the compound. At urban lakes the median OP concentrations were in the range of 23–61 ng/L (TCEP), 85–126 ng/L (TCPP), <LOQ–53 ng/L (TBEP), 8–10 ng/L (TiBP), and 17–32 ng/L (TnBP). In laboratory experiments, TBEP, TiBP, and TnBP were photochemically degraded in spiked lake water samples upon exposure to sunlight. In the SWHT a seasonal trend with decreasing concentrations in summer/autumn was evident for TiBP and TnBP but not for the chlorinated OPs. The decreasing concentrations can be explained by in-lake photodegradation. Results have also shown that the occurrence of OPs in groundwater is depending on the anthropogenic impact during groundwater recharge/natural replenishment. Infiltration of precipitation was found to be no important entry-pathway for OPs into aquifers at rural sites. Highest OP concentrations (>0.1 µg/L) were determined in groundwater polluted by percolating leachate from contaminated sites or groundwater recharged via bank filtration of OP-loaded recipients. Concentrations of TCEP, TCPP, TiBP and TnBP in groundwater decreased rapidly (89–97%) during bank filtration with increasing distance from the recipient due to adsorption processes and/or biotransformation. Although TCEP and TCPP are stable within the aquifer, they are not suitable as conservative organic tracers in groundwater.
Understanding how temperature affects cod (Gadus morhua) ecology is important for forecasting how populations will develop as climate changes in future. The effects of spawning-season temperature and habitat size on cod recruitment dynamics have been investigated across the North Atlantic. Ricker and Beverton and Holt stock–recruitment (SR) models were extended by applying hierarchical methods, mixed-effects models, and Bayesian inference to incorporate the influence of these ecosystem factors on model parameters representing cod maximum reproductive rate and carrying capacity. We identified the pattern of temperature effects on cod productivity at the species level and estimated SR model parameters with increased precision. Temperature impacts vary geographically, being positive in areas where temperatures are <5°C, and negative for higher temperatures. Using the relationship derived, it is possible to predict expected changes in population-specific reproductive rates and carrying capacities resulting from temperature increases. Further, carrying capacity covaries with available habitat size, explaining at least half its variability across stocks. These patterns improve our understanding of environmental impacts on key population parameters, which is required for an ecosystem approach to cod management, particularly under ocean-warming scenarios. Key words: carrying capacity , cod , hierarchical models , North Atlantic , temperature , uncertainty
Emissions of sulphur hexafluoride (SF6), one of the strongest greenhouse gases on a per molecule basis, are targeted to be collectively reduced under the Kyoto Protocol. Because of its long atmospheric lifetime (estimated as 800 to 3200 years), the accumulation of SF6 in the atmosphere is a direct measure of its global emissions. Examination of our extended data set of globally distributed high-precision SF6 observations shows an increase in SF6 abundance from near zero in the 1970s to a global mean of 6.7 ppt by the end of 2008. In-depth evaluation of our long-term data records shows that the global source of SF6 decreased after 1995, most likely due to SF6 emission reductions in industrialised countries, but increased again after 1998. By subtracting those emissions reported by Annex I countries to the United Nations Framework Convention of Climatic Change (UNFCCC) from our observation-inferred SF6 source leaves a surprisingly large gap of more than 70–80% of non-reported SF6 emissions in the last decade. This suggests a strong under-estimation of emissions in Annex I countries and underlines the urgent need for independent atmospheric verification of greenhouse gases emissions accounting.
We report the first measurements of 1,1,1,2,3,3,3-heptafluoropropane (HFC-227ea), a substitute for ozone depleting compounds, in remote regions of the atmosphere and present evidence for its rapid growth. Observed mixing ratios ranged from below 0.01 ppt in deep firn air to 0.59 ppt in the northern mid-latitudinal upper troposphere. Firn air samples collected in Greenland were used to reconstruct a history of atmospheric abundance. Year-on-year increases were deduced, with acceleration in the growth rate from 0.026 ppt per year in 2000 to 0.057 ppt per year in 2007. Upper tropospheric air samples provide evidence for a continuing growth until late 2009. Fur- thermore we calculated a stratospheric lifetime of 370 years from measurements of air samples collected on board high altitude aircraft and balloons. Emission estimates were determined from the reconstructed atmospheric trend and suggest that current "bottom-up" estimates of global emissions for 2005 are too high by more than a factor of three.