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Background: Ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI) is a major challenge in liver transplantation. The mitochondrial pathway plays a pivotal role in hepatic IRI. Levosimendan, a calcium channel sensitizer, was shown to attenuate apoptosis after IRI in animal livers. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of levosimendan on apoptosis in human hepatocytes.
Methods: Primary human hepatocytes were either exposed to hypoxia or cultured under normoxic conditions. After the hypoxic phase, reoxygenation was implemented and cells were treated with different concentrations of levosimendan (10ng/ml, 100ng/ml, 1000ng/ml). The overall metabolic activity of the cells was measured using 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT), and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) levels were determined in order to quantify hepatic injury. Fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) analysis was applied to measure necrosis and apoptosis. Finally, Western blotting was performed to analyze apoptotic pathway proteins.
Results: Administration of levosimendan during reperfusion increases the metabolic activity of human hepatocytes and decreases AST levels. Moreover, apoptosis after IRI is reduced in treated vs. untreated hepatocytes, and levosimendan prevents down-regulation of the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2 as well as up-regulation of the pro-apoptotic protein BAX.
Conclusion: The present study suggests a protective effect of levosimendan on human hepatocytes. Our findings suggest that treatment with levosimendan during reperfusion attenuates apoptosis of human hepatocytes by influencing BAX and Bcl-2 levels.
Background/Aims: Sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) is considered as a key molecule regulating various cell functions including cell growth and death. It is produced by two sphingosine kinases (SK) denoted as SK-1 and SK-2. Whereas SK-1 has been extensively studied and has been appointed a role in promoting cell growth, the function of SK-2 is controversial, and both pro-proliferative and pro-apoptotic functions have been suggested. In this study we investigated whether renal mesangial cells isolated from transgenic mice overexpressing the human Sphk2 gene (hSK2-tg) showed an altered cell response towards growth-inducing and apoptotic stimuli.
Methods: hSK2-tg mice were generated by using a Quick KnockinR strategy. Renal mesangial cells were isolated by a differential sieving method and further cultivated in vitro. Lipids were quantified by mass spectrometry. Protein expression was determined by Western blot analysis, cell proliferation was determined by 3H-thymidine incorporation, and apoptosis was determined by a DNA fragmentation ELISA.
Results: We show here that kidneys and mesangial cells from hSK2-tg mice express the hSK2 as well as the endogenous mouse mSK2. hSK2 and mSK2 predominantly resided in the cytosol of quiescent transgenic cells. However, S1P accumulated strongly in the nucleus and only minimally in the cytosol of transgenic cells. Functionally, hSK2-tg cells proliferated less than control cells under normal growth conditions and were also more sensitive towards stress-induced apoptosis. On the molecular level, this was reflected by reduced ERK and Akt/PKB activation, and upon staurosporine treatment, by a sensitized mitochondrial pathway as manifested by reduced anti-apoptotic Bcl-XL expression and increased cleavage of caspase-9, downstream caspase-3 and PARP-1.
Conclusion: Altogether, these data demonstrate that SK-2 exerts an antiproliferative and apoptosis-sensitizing effect in renal mesangial cells which suggests that selective inhibitors of SK-2 may promote proliferation and reduce apoptosis and this may have impact on the outcome of proliferation-associated diseases such as mesangioproliferative glomerulonephritis.
In der vorliegenden Arbeit wird das Wachstums- und Zelltodverhalten von Tumoren des zentralen Nervensystems untersucht. Des Weiteren wird die Expression verschiedener Apoptose-assoziierter Faktoren in den Präparaten analysiert und mit Normalkontrollen verglichen. Es zeigt sich, dass Apoptose von Tumorzellen aller untersuchter Hirntumore und Malignitätsgrade vollzogen werden kann. Die Rate apoptotischer Zellen ist jedoch sehr variabel und korreliert nicht mit dem Malignitätsgrad der Tumore. Auch besteht keine Korrelation zwischen der Apoptose- und der Proliferationsrate. Die Ergebnisse legen insgesamt nahe, dass die Apoptoserate nicht als Marker für die Malignität von Tumoren des zentralen Nervensystems verwendet werden kann. Auch unter Einbeziehung Apoptose-assoziierter Faktoren ist eine Gradifikation der Tumore hinsichtlich der Malignität nicht möglich. So unterscheiden sich z.B. atypische (WHO-II) und anaplastische (WHO-III) Meningiome quantitativ und qualitativ nicht signifikant voneinander. Es können ebenfalls keine signifikanten Unterschiede hinsichtlich der Expression der untersuchten Apoptose-assoziierten Faktoren, sowie der Apoptose- und Proliferationsraten zwischen Medulloblastomen und primitiven neuroektodermalen Tumoren (PNETs) festgestellt werden. Dies spricht dafür, dass sich diese Tumore lediglich bezüglich ihrer Lokalisation im zentralen Nervensystem unterscheiden. Die Analyse der Apoptose-assoziierten Faktoren zeigt, dass alle untersuchten Faktoren grundsätzlich in allen untersuchten Tumoren vorkommen, während die Normalkontrollen diese Faktoren nicht exprimieren. Der Vollzug der Apoptose findet jedoch nicht in diesem Maße statt, da die Apoptoserate der Tumore (markiert durch TUNEL) stets wesentlich geringer ist als die Expressionsraten der Apoptose-assoziierten Faktoren. Es ist davon auszugehen, dass entdifferenzierte Tumorzellen entweder nur begrenzt in der Lage sind, ihr apoptotisches „Selbstzerstörungsprogramm“ in Gang zu setzen und zu Ende zu führen, oder, dass apoptosehemmende Mechanismen greifen. Um so interessanter wäre es, durch therapeutische Intervention Apoptose zu initiieren. Die Analyse der einzelnen Apoptose-assoziierten Faktoren liefert Hinweise darauf, an welchen Stellen des apoptotischen Systems eine solche Intervention ansetzen könnte: Die hochmalignen WHO-IV-Tumore zeigen eine signifikante Hochregulation der Effektor-Caspasen-3 und -6. Die physiologischen Aktivierungsmechanismen dieser Caspasen z.B. durch Caspase-2 und TNFalpha scheinen in diesen hochmalignen Tumoren jedoch weniger eine Rolle zu spielen, da diese Faktoren hier nur in geringem Ausmaß exprimiert werden. Jedoch könnten modifizierte, per se aktive Caspase-3- und -6-Moleküle eine interessante therapeutische Option zur Behandlung maligner Tumore des zentralen Nervensystems darstellen. Zu beachten ist aber unter anderem, dass z.B. Glioblastome auch geringe Expressionsraten apoptotischer Faktoren im peritumoralen, mikroskopisch nicht infiltrierten Normalgewebe zeigen. Dies könnte für eine peritumorale Dysfunktion des Hirngewebes sprechen. Welche Rolle dies bei der Behandlung mit Apoptose-stimulierenden Agenzien spielt und wie spezifisch die Anwendung solcher Stimulanzien für Tumorgewebe wären, muss Gegenstand weiterer Studien sein. Die untersuchten WHO-II- und –III-Tumore zeigen eine Hochregulation vor allem von Faktoren des extrinsischen Apoptoseweges (z.B. TNFalpha). Die Expressionsraten von TNFalpha korrelieren signifikant mit dem WHO-Grad der untersuchten Tumore. Interessante therapeutische Optionen könnten hier zum einen die Aktivierung des extrinsischen Apoptoseweges über TNFalpha sein, zum anderen könnte man versuchen, eine direkte Aktivierung über modifizierte Effektor-Caspasen herbeizuführen. Insgesamt existieren verschiedene mögliche Angriffsorte innerhalb des apoptotischen Netzwerkes der Zelle für eine thepeutische Intervention bei Tumoren des zentralen Nervensystems. Die Komplexität des Kaskade-artigen Systems legt nahe, dass eine therapeutische Intervention möglichst an dessen Ende erfolgen sollte, um möglichst viele Stör- und Hemmfaktoren zu umgehen.
Searching for new strategies to trigger apoptosis in rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS), we investigated the effect of two novel classes of apoptosis-targeting agents, i.e. monoclonal antibodies against TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) receptor 1 (mapatumumab) and TRAIL receptor 2 (lexatumumab) and small-molecule inhibitors of inhibitor of apoptosis (IAP) proteins. Here, we report that IAP inhibitors synergized with lexatumumab, but not with mapatumumab, to reduce cell viability and to induce apoptosis in several RMS cell lines in a highly synergistic manner (combination index <0.1). Cotreatment-induced apoptosis was accompanied by enhanced activation of caspase-8, -9, and -3; loss of mitochondrial membrane potential; and caspase-dependent apoptosis. In addition, IAP inhibitor and lexatumumab cooperated to stimulate the assembly of a cytosolic complex containing RIP1, FADD, and caspase-8. Importantly, knockdown of RIP1 by RNA interference prevented the formation of the RIP1·FADD·caspase-8 complex and inhibited subsequent activation of caspase-8, -9, and -3; loss of mitochondrial membrane potential; and apoptosis upon treatment with IAP inhibitor and lexatumumab. In addition, RIP1 silencing rescued clonogenic survival of cells treated with the combination of lexatumumab and IAP inhibitor, thus underscoring the critical role of RIP1 in cotreatment-induced apoptosis. By comparison, the TNFα-blocking antibody Enbrel had no effect on IAP inhibitor/lexatumumab-induced apoptosis, indicating that an autocrine TNFα loop is dispensable. By demonstrating that IAP inhibitors and lexatumumab synergistically trigger apoptosis in a RIP1-dependent but TNFα-independent manner in RMS cells, our findings substantially advance our understanding of IAP inhibitor-mediated regulation of TRAIL-induced cell death.
Background: NH exchangers (NHEs) play a crucial role in regulating intra/extracellular pH, which is altered in cancer cells, and are therefore suitable targets to alter cancer cell metabolism in order to inhibit cell survival and proliferation. Among NHE inhibitors, amiloride family members are commonly used in clinical practice as diuretics; we focused on the amiloride HMA, reporting a net cytotoxic effect on a panel of human cancer cell lines; now we aim to provide new insights into the molecular events leading to cell death by HMA.
Methods: Colon cancer cell lines were treated with HMA and analysed with: morphological and cellular assays for cell viability and death, and autophagy; biochemical approaches to evaluate mitochondrial function and ROS production; in situ detection of DNA damage; molecular tools to silence crucial autophagy/necroptosis factors.
Results: HMA affects cellular morphology, alters mitochondrial structure and function, causes an increase in ROS, which is detrimental to DNA integrity, stimulates poly(ADP-ribose) synthesis, activates RIPK3-dependent death and triggers autophagy, which is unable to rescue cell survival. These features are hot points of an intricate network of processes, including necroptosis and autophagy, regulating the homeostasis between survival and death.
Conclusion: Our results allow the identification of multiple events leading to cell death in cancer cells treated with HMA. The here-defined intricate network activated by HMA could be instrumental to selectively target the key players of each pathway in the attempt to improve the global response to HMA. Our data could be the starting point for developing a newly designed targeted therapy.