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Hepatitis Delta virus (HDV) is a satellite of Hepatitis B virus with a single-stranded circular RNA genome. HDV RNA genome synthesis is carried out in infected cells by cellular RNA polymerases with the assistance of the small hepatitis delta antigen (S-HDAg). Here we show that S-HDAg binds the bromodomain (BRD) adjacent to zinc finger domain 2B (BAZ2B) protein, a regulatory subunit of BAZ2B-associated remodeling factor (BRF) ISWI chromatin remodeling complexes. shRNA-mediated silencing of BAZ2B or its inactivation with the BAZ2B BRD inhibitor GSK2801 impairs HDV replication in HDV-infected human hepatocytes. S-HDAg contains a short linear interacting motif (SLiM) KacXXR, similar to the one recognized by BAZ2B BRD in histone H3. We found that the integrity of the S-HDAg SLiM sequence is required for S-HDAg interaction with BAZ2B BRD and for HDV RNA replication. Our results suggest that S-HDAg uses a histone mimicry strategy to co-activate the RNA polymerase II-dependent synthesis of HDV RNA and sustain HDV replication.
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the major cause of dementia. It is characterized by the accumulation of abnormal proteins (amyloid-β plaque and neurofibrillary tangles) leading to loss of synapses, dendrites, neurons, memory and cognition. Sporadic late-onset AD is the major type of AD characterized by unclear etiology and a lack of disease-modifying therapy. To understand this disease, an alternative AD hypothesis has been proposed: AD may resemble diabetes in the brain or “diabetes type 3”. This hypothesis is supported by the fact that (1) brain glucose hypometabolism precedes AD clinical symptoms and (2) diabetes increases the risk of AD. To test this hypothesis, wild-type rats receiving intracerebroventricular administration of streptozotocin (icv-STZ) were used as a model. Streptozotocin (STZ) is a glucosamine-nitrosourea compound commonly used to induce experimental diabetes by peripheral administration. A similar pathological mechanism to peripheral STZ is then proposed to explain icv-STZ toxicity: insulin receptor signaling impairment results in glucose hypometabolism leading to cognitive deficits.
Objective: Icv-STZ model seems promising as a toxin-induced, non-transgenic AD model with the possibility to connect AD and diabetes mellitus (DM), one of the risk factors for AD. However, the mechanisms of how icv-STZ induced AD-like symptoms are unclear. Therefore, using microdialysis as the main technique, we tested 2 AD hypotheses in this model: (1) the glucose hypometabolism as an alternative AD hypothesis and (2) the cholinergic deficit as an important characteristic of AD pathology. Hippocampus was chosen because cholinergic function in this region is severely affected in AD. In comparison, the striatum was chosen because it contains cholinergic interneurons and is less affected in AD.
Methods: In this study, we used male Wistar rats of 190-220 g body weight (5 weeks of age). The rats were injected intracerebrally with STZ at a dose of 3 mg/kg (2x1.5 mg/kg; „high dose“) and 0.6 mg/kg („low dose“) with saline as control. After 21 days, samples were collected to investigate cholinergic and metabolic changes using histology, biochemistry, and neurochemistry. Brain injury was confirmed using GFAP staining and Fluoro jade staining in the hippocampus. Mitochondrial toxicity was investigated by measurement of mitochondrial
respiratory function in both hippocampus and striatum. Cholinergic markers such as acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity, choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) activity, and choline transporter (CHT-1) activity, commonly known as high-affinity choline uptake (HACU), were measured in both hippocampus and striatum using a spectrophotometer and a scintillator.
Microdialysis is the main technique in our study. It was done in awake animals under behavioral or pharmacological stimulation. We used a self-built probe with a semi-permeable membrane (pore size of 30 kDa) that was implanted in either hippocampus or striatum. The probes were then perfused with artificial cerebrospinal fluid (aCSF) supplemented with 0.1 μM neostigmine for extracellular acetylcholine level measurement. During the perfusion, small hydrophilic compounds from brain extracellular space diffuse into the dialysates. Dialysates of 15 minutes intervals were collected for 90 minutes and used for analysis. After collection of dialysates for the first 90 minutes (basal data), rats were moved to an open field box (35x32x20 cm) for behavioral stimulation. After collection of the second 90 minute dialysates, the rats were transferred back to the microdialysis cage and dialysates were collected for another 90 minutes. On day 2, after collection of dialysates under basal conditions, 1 μM scopolamine was added to the perfusion solution for stimulation of acetylcholine release. The dialysates were also collected for 90 min followed by another 90 min of dialysis without scopolamine. The microdialysate samples were then analyzed as follows. ACh level was measured by HPLC-ECD. Glucose metabolites (glucose, lactate, pyruvate) were measured by a CMA-600 microanalyzer. An alternative energy metabolite (beta-hydroxybutyrate/BHB) was measured by GC-MS. Choline and glycerol as membrane breakdown markers were also measured by HPLC-ECD and CMA-600 microanalyzer, respectively. Markers of oxidative stress (isoprostanes) were measured using a commercially available ELISA kit.
...
Neuropathic pain is a debilitating and commonly treatment-refractory condition requiring novel therapeutic options. Accumulating preclinical studies indicate that the potassium channel Slack (KNa1.1) contributes to the processing of neuropathic pain, and that Slack activators, when injected into mice, ameliorate pain-related hypersensitivity. However, whether Slack activation might reduce neuropathic pain in humans remains elusive. Here, we evaluated the tolerability and analgesic efficacy of loxapine, a first-generation antipsychotic drug and Slack activator, in neuropathic pain patients. We aimed to treat 12 patients with chronic chemotherapy-induced, treatment-refractory neuropathic pain (pain severity ≥ 4 units on an 11-point numerical rating scale) in a monocentric, open label, proof-of-principle study. Patients received loxapine orally as add-on analgesic in a dose-escalating manner (four treatment episodes for 14 days, daily dose: 20, 30, 40, or 60 mg loxapine) depending on tolerability and analgesic efficacy. Patient-reported outcomes of pain intensity and/or relief were recorded daily. After enrolling four patients, this study was prematurely terminated due to adverse events typically occurring with first-generation antipsychotic drugs that were reported by all patients. In two patients receiving loxapine for at least two treatment episodes, a clinically relevant analgesic effect was found at a daily dose of 20–30 mg of loxapine. Another two patients tolerated loxapine only for a few days. Together, our data further support the hypothesis that Slack activation might be a novel strategy for neuropathic pain therapy. However, loxapine is no valid treatment option for painful polyneuropathy due to profound dopamine and histamine receptor-related side effects.
Clinical Trial Registration: www.ClinicalTrials.gov, identifier NCT02820519.
Since hyperactivity of the protein kinase DYRK1A is linked to several neurodegenerative disorders, DYRK1A inhibitors have been suggested as potential therapeutics for Down syndrome and Alzheimer’s disease. Most published inhibitors to date suffer from low selectivity against related kinases or from unfavorable physicochemical properties. In order to identify DYRK1A inhibitors with improved properties, a series of new chemicals based on [b]-annulated halogenated indoles were designed, synthesized, and evaluated for biological activity. Analysis of crystal structures revealed a typical type-I binding mode of the new inhibitor 4-chlorocyclohepta[b]indol-10(5H)-one in DYRK1A, exploiting mainly shape complementarity for tight binding. Conversion of the DYRK1A inhibitor 8-chloro-1,2,3,9-tetrahydro-4H-carbazol-4-one into a corresponding Mannich base hydrochloride improved the aqueous solubility but abrogated kinase inhibitory activity.
Bromodomains (BRDs) are conserved protein interaction modules which recognize (read) acetyl-lysine modifications, however their role(s) in regulating cellular states and their potential as targets for the development of targeted treatment strategies is poorly understood. Here we present a set of 25 chemical probes, selective small molecule inhibitors, covering 29 human bromodomain targets. We comprehensively evaluate the selectivity of this probe-set using BROMOscan and demonstrate the utility of the set identifying roles of BRDs in cellular processes and potential translational applications. For instance, we discovered crosstalk between histone acetylation and the glycolytic pathway resulting in a vulnerability of breast cancer cell lines under conditions of glucose deprivation or GLUT1 inhibition to inhibition of BRPF2/3 BRDs. This chemical probe-set will serve as a resource for future applications in the discovery of new physiological roles of bromodomain proteins in normal and disease states, and as a toolset for bromodomain target validation.
5-lipoxygenase (5-LO) is the key enzyme in the biosynthesis of leukotrienes and specialized proresolving lipid mediators (SPM). It is mainly expressed in leukocytes and is part of the innate immune system. 5-LO can shuttle between the cytosol and the nucleus. Upon cell activation the protein translocates from soluble cellular compartments to the nuclear membrane. Besides FLAP which is required for cellular leukotriene and SPM formation, 5-LO interacts with other proteins like coactosin-like protein (CLP), Dicer, β-catenin and p53. In this review, the factors involved in the regulation of 5-LO expression, the role of 5-LO in the regulation of stem cell proliferation and differentiation and its biological functions apart from leukotriene and SPM formation are summarized.
Introduction: When developing bio-enabling formulations, innovative tools are required to understand and predict in vivo performance and may facilitate approval by regulatory authorities. EMEND® is an example of such a formulation, in which the active pharmaceutical ingredient, aprepitant, is nano-sized. The aims of this study were 1) to characterize the 80 mg and 125 mg EMEND® capsules in vitro using biorelevant tools, 2) to develop and parameterize a physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model to simulate and better understand the in vivo performance of EMEND® capsules and 3) to assess which parameters primarily influence the in vivo performance of this formulation across the therapeutic dose range.
Methods: Solubility, dissolution and transfer experiments were performed in various biorelevant media simulating the fasted and fed state environment in the gastrointestinal tract. An in silico PBPK model for healthy volunteers was developed in the Simcyp Simulator, informed by the in vitro results and data available from the literature.
Results: In vitro experiments indicated a large effect of native surfactants on the solubility of aprepitant. Coupling the in vitro results with the PBPK model led to an appropriate simulation of aprepitant plasma concentrations after administration of 80 mg and 125 mg EMEND® capsules in both the fasted and fed states. Parameter Sensitivity Analysis (PSA) was conducted to investigate the effect of several parameters on the in vivo performance of EMEND®. While nano-sizing aprepitant improves its in vivo performance, intestinal solubility remains a barrier to its bioavailability and thus aprepitant should be classified as DCS IIb.
Conclusions: The present study underlines the importance of combining in vitro and in silico biopharmaceutical tools to understand and predict the absorption of this poorly soluble compound from an enabling formulation. The approach can be applied to other poorly soluble compounds to support rational formulation design and to facilitate regulatory assessment of the bio-performance of enabling formulations.
During erythropoiesis, haematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) differentiate in successive steps of commitment and specification to mature erythrocytes. This differentiation process is controlled by transcription factors that establish stage- and cell type-specific gene expression. In this study, we demonstrate that FUSE binding protein 1 (FUBP1), a transcriptional regulator important for HSC self-renewal and survival, is regulated by T-cell acute lymphocytic leukaemia 1 (TAL1) in erythroid progenitor cells. TAL1 directly activates the FUBP1 promoter, leading to increased FUBP1 expression during erythroid differentiation. The binding of TAL1 to the FUBP1 promoter is highly dependent on an intact GATA sequence in a combined E-box/GATA motif. We found that FUBP1 expression is required for efficient erythropoiesis, as FUBP1-deficient progenitor cells were limited in their potential of erythroid differentiation. Thus, the finding of an interconnection between GATA1/TAL1 and FUBP1 reveals a molecular mechanism that is part of the switch from progenitor- to erythrocyte-specific gene expression. In summary, we identified a TAL1/FUBP1 transcriptional relationship, whose physiological function in haematopoiesis is connected to proper erythropoiesis.
Nukleäre Rezeptoren sind ligandenaktivierte Transkriptionsfaktoren, die das pharmazeutische Interesse als Zielstrukturen für antientzündliche Wirkstoffe und andere Indikationen erwecken. Entzündungen werden durch Noxen physikalischer, chemischer oder mikrobiologischer Art hervorgerufen. Dabei reagiert das geschädigte Gewebe mit zahlreichen Vorgängen, die vaskuläre und zelluläre Reaktionen mit Immunantworten verknüpfen und nach der Wiederherstellung des ursprünglichen Zustands streben. Bei andauernder Wirkung können Entzündungen jedoch in einen schädlichen Prozess umschlagen, sodass in solchen Fällen eine therapeutische Intervention Notwendigkeit erlangt. Ziel dieser Arbeit war es deshalb, neue Liganden nukleärer Rezeptoren als Kandidaten für antientzündliche Wirkstoffe zu identifizieren.
Leber X Rezeptoren (LXRs) sind Zielstrukturen für entzündliche und neurodegenerative Erkrankungen mit antiphlogistischem Potenzial. Zur Identifikation neuer LXR-Liganden wurde eine Datenbank mit zugelassenen Wirkstoffen mithilfe einer selbstorganisierenden Karte (SOM) auf Interaktion mit LXR gescreent. Die Retinoid X Rezeptor (RXR)-Agonisten Alitretinoin (37) und Bexaroten (38) konnten in der anschließenden in vitro Charakterisierung als potente duale LXRalpha/LXRbeta-Partialagonisten mit moderater Aktivierungseffizienz bestätigt werden. Während 37 und 38 synthetische LXR-Vollagonisten partiell antagonisierten, führten sie mit dem endogenen Partialagonisten 22(R)-Hydroxycholesterol (4) zur additiven Aktivierung von LXR. Die Charakterisierung von Alitretinoin (37) und Bexaroten (38) als duale LXR/RXR-Agonisten liefert nicht nur eine weitere Erklärung für in klinischen Studien beobachtete Nebenwirkungen, sondern könnte auch den Startpunkt zur Entwicklung neuer antientzündlicher LXR- und dualer LXR/RXR-Liganden bieten.
Der Peroxisomen Proliferator-aktivierte Rezeptor (PPAR) gamma ist ein nukleärer Rezeptor, der neben der Steigerung der Insulinsensitivität auch antientzündliche Effekte aufweist. Auf Grundlage seiner Y-förmigen und fettsäuremimetischen Struktur konnte das Urikosurikum Lesinurad (47) als PPARgamma-Partialagonist in vitro charakterisiert werden. Im Gegensatz zu PPARgamma-Vollagonisten wie Pioglitazon (31) oder Rosiglitazon (32) induzierte 47 nicht die Differenzierung muriner 3T3-L1 Zellen in reife Adipozyten, aber erhöhte in der humanen Leberzellkarzinomzelllinie HepG2 die Expression von Genen, welche die Insulinsensitivität und den Fettsäureabbau steigern könnten. Folglich erwies sich Lesinurad (47), das bei der Pharmakotherapie von Gicht Anwendung findet, als selektiver PPARgamma-Modulator (sPPARgammaM) ohne adipogene Nebenwirkungen. Insbesondere Patienten mit Komorbiditäten wie Diabetes mellitus Typ 2 oder anderen Erkrankungen des metabolischen Syndroms könnten von einer Behandlung mit 47 profitieren. Inwiefern PPARgamma an der Auflösung von Entzündungen bei Gicht beteiligt ist, bleibt in zukünftigen Studien zu klären.
Synthetische RXR-Agonisten haben ein vielversprechendes Potenzial zur Behandlung entzündlicher neurodegenerativer Erkrankungen, das jedoch von nachteiligen Eigenschaften dieser Rexinoide beeinträchtigt wird. Durch ein pharmakophorbasiertes Screening einer fokussierten Substanzbibliothek aus Fettsäuremimetika konnte ein fortschrittliches RXR-Ligandgerüst identifiziert werden. Eine geeignete Synthesestrategie wurde etabliert und die Leitstrukturen durch systematisches Studium der Struktur-Wirkungsbeziehung (SAR) optimiert. In vitro Experimente wie Reportergenassays und die Quantifizierung der Zielgenexpression bestätigten die RXR-partialagonistische Aktivität der dabei entwickelten nanomolaren Verbindung 89. Mit seiner hohen Selektivität, gesteigerten wässrigen Löslichkeit sowie reduzierter Lipophilie und Toxizität könnte 89 die Probleme bisheriger synthetischer RXR-Agonisten überwinden. Seine Präferenz von RXRgamma hinsichtlich der Aktivierungseffizienz könnte richtungsweisend für die Entwicklung subtypselektiver Liganden sein.
Die nichtalkoholische Steatohepatitis (NASH) ist eine Leberentzündung, die aus einer Steatose hervorgehen kann und deren multifaktorielle Natur eine hohe therapeutische Effizienz erfordert. Diese könnte durch duale Modulation der nukleären Rezeptoren Farnesoid X Rezeptor (FXR) und PPARdelta mit antientzündlichen Eigenschaften und unterschiedlichem Wirkprinzip erreicht werden. Zur Validierung dieses Ansatzes mit synergistischem Potenzial sollten duale PPARdelta/FXR-Agonisten ausgehend von einer in früheren Studien des Arbeitskreises identifizierten Leitstruktur mit moderater Potenz entwickelt werden. Dazu wurde ein fünfstufiges Verfahren zur Synthese von Derivaten der Leitstruktur erarbeitet und die Derivate hinsichtlich ihrer Aktivität auf den Zielstrukturen in vitro evaluiert. In systematischen SAR-Studien wurden dabei Strukturmotive charakterisiert, welche die Wirksamkeit und Maximalaktivierung auf PPARdelta und FXR steigerten. Darüber hinaus konnten Modifikationen identifiziert werden, welche eine Selektivität über PPARalpha und PPARgamma gewährten. Die Kombination dieser vorteilhaften Gruppen und Substituenten könnte neue Wirkstoffkandidaten zur Behandlung von NASH hervorbringen.
Insgesamt wurden in dieser Arbeit zahlreiche Wirkstoffe und Wirkstoffkandidaten erfolgreich als Liganden nukleärer Rezeptoren mit antientzündlichem Potenzial identifiziert. Alitretinoin (37) und Bexaroten (38) können als Leitstruktur zur Entwicklung neuer selektiver LXR- oder dualer LXR/RXR-Agonisten dienen. Die PPARgamma-partialagonistische Aktivität von Lesinurad (47) könnte einen Fortschritt in der Therapie von Gicht mit metabolischen Begleiterkrankungen bewirken. Zudem könnten im Zuge dieser Arbeit synthetisierte Serien von RXR- und dualen PPARdelta/FXR-Partialagonisten neue Therapieoptionen bei neurodegenerativen Erkrankungen oder NASH ermöglichen.
Purpose. Status epilepticus (SE) is characterized by recurrent seizure activity and can be drug-resistant. Knowledge of neuronal and metabolic activity of the brain during SE may be helpful to improve medical care. We here report the effects of three anti-seizure drugs on changes of acetylcholine energy metabolites and oxidative stress during SE. Methods. We used the lithium-pilocarpine model in rats to induce SE and in vivo-microdialysis to monitor cholinergic and metabolic activity in the hippocampus. We measured extracellular concentrations of acetylcholine, glucose, lactate, pyruvate, glycerol and isoprostanes before and during SE, and after acute treatment with pregabalin, valproic acid, and levetiracteam. Results. Upon onset of SE, acetylcholine (ACh) release increased six- to eightfold. Glucose was increased only transiently by 30% but lactate levels rose four-fold, and extracellular concentrations of glycerol ten-fold. Isoprostanes are markers of oxidative stress and increased more than 20-fold. Two hours after pilocarpine adminstration, rats were treated with pregabalin (100 mg/kg), levetiracetam (200 mg/kg) or valproic acid (400 mg/kg) by i.p. injection. All three drugs stopped seizure activity in a delayed fashion, but at the doses indicated, only animals that received levetiracetam reached consciousness. All drugs reduced ACh release within 60-120 minutes. Lactate/pyruvate ratios, glycerol and isoprostanne levels were also reduced significantly after drug administration. Conclusions. Hippocampal ACh release closely follows seizure activity in SE and is attenuated when SE subsides. Pregabalin, valproic acid and levetiracetam all terminate seizures in the rat SE model and attenuate cholinergic and metabolic changes within two hours.