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Dosing accuracy of two disposable insulin pens according to new ISO 11608-1: 2012 requirements.
(2015)
OBJECTIVE: The aim was to compare 2 disposable insulin pens, FlexTouch® (Novo Nordisk, insulin aspart) and SoloSTAR® (Sanofi, insulin glulisine), according to new ISO 11608-1:2012 requirements for dosing accuracy.
METHODS: Sixty pens of each type were tested at 1, 40, and 80 U doses. Following the new ISO requirements, each dose was delivered from the front, middle, and rear one-third of the pen. Statistical analysis was performed using Student's t test.
RESULTS: Both pens delivered all doses within ISO limits. The difference between the average measured dose and the target dose was significantly smaller for SoloSTAR than FlexTouch at 40 U (P = .009) and 80 U (P = .008), but not at 1 U (P = .417).
CONCLUSION: Both insulin pens fulfilled the dosing accuracy requirements defined by ISO 11608-1:2012 at all 3 dosage levels.
The utilization of Ginkgo biloba in medicinal practice dates back to 1505 A.D. Ironically, the mechanisms of action of Ginkgo are not fully clarified till now. Nowadays, Ginkgo biloba leaf extracts are mainly indicated for mild to moderate cerebrovascular insufficiency and different forms of dementia. The fact that it is an herbal extract composed of several different components indeed adds to the intricacy of finding its mechanisms of actions. Indisputably, many scientists tried to elucidate the mechanisms of actions of Ginkgo. The first step to achieve this goal was to standardize the leaf extract. The standardized Ginkgo leaf extract contains 22-27 % flavonol glycosides, 2.8-3.4 % of ginkgolide A, B and C, as well as approximately 2.6-3.2 % bilobalide and below 5 ppm ginkgolic acids. A widespread standardized Ginkgo extract is the EGb 761, which was utilized in the current work. One of the earliest proposed mechanisms is the ability of the Ginkgo extract to act as an anti-oxidant, which could be explained by its high flavonoid contents. However, without doubt EGb 761 encompasses other characteristics which distinguish it from other herbal extracts that are also rich in flavonoids. Since free radicals and reactive oxygen species are highly associated with the mitochondrial functions, examination of the effect of EGb 761 on mitochondrial functions was lately addressed. Moreover, this was encouraged as the link between Alzheimer’s disease [AD] and the mitochondria started to emerge. Previously, our group observed mitochondrial protective actions of EGb 761 on cell culture in vitro. Furthermore, anti-apoptotic effects were previously described for EGb 761. However, only very few studies addressed the single constituents and their effect on mitochondrial functions. Flavonoids were studied in several other plant extracts and their radical scavenging activity is unquestionable, but EGb 761 has anti-apoptotic actions which may be attributed to its terpenoid fraction. Exclusively found in the Ginkgo plant, are the ginkgolides and therefore their actions are not yet fully elucidated. Moreover, those who attempted to address these constituents concentrated on one or two candidates, for example bilobalide or ginkgolide B and ignored the rest. Unfortunately, this led to incomplete results, and one couldn’t compare the relative activities of all EGb 761 components in order to state whether all the components are effective or not. ...
Hepatitis Delta virus (HDV) is a satellite of Hepatitis B virus with a single-stranded circular RNA genome. HDV RNA genome synthesis is carried out in infected cells by cellular RNA polymerases with the assistance of the small hepatitis delta antigen (S-HDAg). Here we show that S-HDAg binds the bromodomain (BRD) adjacent to zinc finger domain 2B (BAZ2B) protein, a regulatory subunit of BAZ2B-associated remodeling factor (BRF) ISWI chromatin remodeling complexes. shRNA-mediated silencing of BAZ2B or its inactivation with the BAZ2B BRD inhibitor GSK2801 impairs HDV replication in HDV-infected human hepatocytes. S-HDAg contains a short linear interacting motif (SLiM) KacXXR, similar to the one recognized by BAZ2B BRD in histone H3. We found that the integrity of the S-HDAg SLiM sequence is required for S-HDAg interaction with BAZ2B BRD and for HDV RNA replication. Our results suggest that S-HDAg uses a histone mimicry strategy to co-activate the RNA polymerase II-dependent synthesis of HDV RNA and sustain HDV replication.
Inhibitor of Apoptosis (IAP) proteins are expressed at high levels in many cancers and contribute to apoptosis resistance. Therefore, they represent promising anticancer drug targets. Here, we report that small molecule IAP inhibitors at subtoxic concentrations cooperate with monoclonal antibodies against TRAIL receptor 1 (Mapatumumab) or TRAIL receptor 2 (Lexatumumab) to induce apoptosis in neuroblastoma cells in a highly synergistic manner (combination index <0.1). Importantly, we identify RIP1 as a critical regulator of this synergism. RIP1 is required for the formation of a RIP1/FADD/caspase-8 complex that drives caspase-8 activation, cleavage of Bid into tBid, mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization, full activation of caspase-3 and caspase-dependent apoptosis. Indeed, knockdown of RIP1 abolishes formation of the RIP1/FADD/caspase-8 complex, subsequent caspase activation and apoptosis upon treatment with IAP inhibitor and TRAIL receptor antibodies. Similarly, inhibition of RIP1 kinase activity by Necrostatin-1 inhibits IAP inhibitor- and TRAIL receptor-triggered apoptosis. By comparison, over-expression of the dominant-negative superrepressor IκBα-SR or addition of the TNFα-blocking antibody Enbrel does not inhibit IAP inhibitor- and Lexatumumab-induced apoptosis, pointing to a NF-κB- and TNFα-independent mechanism. Of note, IAP inhibitor also significantly reduces TRAIL receptor-mediated loss of cell viability of primary cultured neuroblastoma cells, underscoring the clinical relevance. By demonstrating that RIP1 plays a key role in the IAP inhibitor-mediated sensitization for Mapatumumab- or Lexatumumab-induced apoptosis, our findings provide strong rationale to develop the combination of IAP inhibitors and TRAIL receptor agonists as a new therapeutic strategy for the treatment of human cancer.
Over the past two decades the “one drug – one target – one disease” concept became the prevalent paradigm in drug discovery. The main idea of this approach is the identification of a single protein target whose inhibition leads to a successful treatment of the examined disease. The predominant assumption is that highly selective ligands would avoid unwanted side effects caused by binding to secondary non-therapeutic targets. In recent years the results of post-genomic and network biology showed that proteins rarely act in isolated systems but rather as a part of a highly connected network [1]. In addition this connectivity leads to more robust systems that cannot be interfered by the inhibition of a single target of that network and consequently might not lead to the desired therapeutic effect [2]. Furthermore studies prove that robust systems are rather affected by weak inhibitions of several parts than by a complete inhibition of a single selected element of that system [3]. Therefore there is an increasing interest in developing drugs that take effect on multiple targets simultaneously but is concurrently a great challenge for medicinal chemists. There has to be a sufficient activity on each target as well as an adequate pharmacokinetic profile [4]. Early design strategies tried to link the pharmacophors of known inhibitors, however these methods often lead to high molecular weight and low ligand efficacy. We present a new rational approach based on a retrosynthetic combinatorial analysis procedure [5] on approved ligands of multiple targets. These RECAP fragments are used to design a large combinatorial library containing molecules featuring chemical properties of each ligand class. The molecules are further validated by machine learning models, like random forests and self-organizing maps, regarding their activity on the targets of interest.
Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells are in prime focus of current research in cancer immunotherapy. Facilitating CAR T cell generation is among the top goals. We have recently demonstrated direct in vivo generation of human CD19-CAR T cells by targeting CD8+ cells using lentiviral vectors (LVs). The anti-tumor potency of in vivo generated CAR T cells was assessed in human PBMC-transplanted NSG mice carrying i.v. injected CD19+ Nalm-6 tumor cells. A single injection of CD8-targeted LV delivering CD19-CAR was sufficient to completely eliminate the tumor cells from bone marrow and spleen, whereas control animals contained high levels of CD19+ cells. Tumor elimination was due to in vivo generated CAR+ cells. Notably, these were not only composed of T lymphocytes but also included CAR+ natural killer cells (NK and NKT). This is the first demonstration of tumor elimination by in vivo generated human CAR T cells.
The human 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO), encoded by the ALOX5 gene, is the key enzyme in the formation of pro-inflammatory leukotrienes. ALOX5 gene transcription is strongly stimulated by calcitriol (1α, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D3) and TGFβ (transforming growth factor-β). Here, we investigated the influence of MLL (activator of transcript initiation), AF4 (activator of transcriptional elongation) as well as of the leukemogenic fusion proteins MLL-AF4 (ectopic activator of transcript initiation) and AF4-MLL (ectopic activator of transcriptional elongation) on calcitriol/TGFβ-dependent 5-LO transcript elongation. We present evidence that the AF4 complex directly interacts with the vitamin D receptor (VDR) and promotes calcitriol-dependent ALOX5 transcript elongation. Activation of transcript elongation was strongly enhanced by the AF4-MLL fusion protein but was sensitive to Flavopiridol. By contrast, MLL-AF4 displayed no effect on transcriptional elongation. Furthermore, HDAC class I inhibitors inhibited the ectopic effects caused by AF4-MLL on transcriptional elongation, suggesting that HDAC class I inhibitors are potential therapeutics for the treatment of t(4;11)(q21;q23) leukemia.
Remodeling of extracellular matrix (ECM) is an important physiologic feature of normal growth and development. In addition to this critical function in physiology many diseases have been associated with an imbalance of ECM synthesis and degradation. In the kidney, dysregulation of ECM turnover can lead to interstitial fibrosis, and glomerulosclerosis. The major physiologic regulators of ECM degradation in the glomerulus are the large family of zinc-dependent proteases, collectively refered to matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs). The tight regulation of most of these proteases is accomplished by different mechanisms, including the regulation of MMP gene expression, the processing and conversion of the inactive zymogen by other proteases such as serine proteases and finally the inhibition of active MMPs by endogenous inhibitors of MMPs, denoted as tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs). Namely, the MMP-9 has been shown to be critically involved in the dysregulation of ECM turnover associated with severe pathologic conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis or fibrosis of lung, skin and kidney. In the present work I searched for a possible modulation of MMP-9 expression and/or activity in glomerular mesangial cells which are thought as key players of many inflammatory and non-inflammatory glomerular diseases. I found that various structurally different PPARalpha agonists such as WY-14,643, LY-171883 and fibrates potently suppress the cytokine-induced MMP-9 expression in renal MC. Furthermore, I demonstrate that the inhibition of MMP-9 expression by PPARalpha agonists was paralleled by a strong increase of cytokine-induced iNOS expression and subsequent NO formation, suggesting that PPARalpha-dependent effects on MMP-9 expression level primarily result from alterations in NO production which in turn reduces the MMP-9 mRNA half-life. Searching for the detailed mechanism of NO-dependent effects on MMP-9 mRNA stability, I found that NO either given from exogenous sources or endogenously produced increases the MMP-9 mRNA degradation by decreasing the expression of the mRNA stabilizing factor HuR. Furthermore, I demonstrate a reduction in the RNA-binding capacity of HuR containing complexes to MMP-9 ARE motifs in cells treated with NO. Since the reduction of HuR expression can be mimicked by the cGMP analog 8-Bromo-cGMP, I suggest that NO reduces in a cGMP-dependent manner the expression of HuR. Finally, I elucidated the modulatory effect of extracellular nucleotides, mainly ATP, on cytokine-triggered MMP-9 expression. Interestingly, I found that in contrast to NO, gamma-S-ATP the stable analog of ATP potently amplifies the IL-beta mediated MMP-9 expression. The increase in mRNA stability was paralleled by an increase in the nuclear-cytosolic shuttling of the mRNA stabilizing factor HuR. Furthermore, I demonstrate an increase in the RNA-binding capacity of HuR containing complexes to the 3'-UTR of MMP-9 by ATP. In summary, the data presented here may help to find new targets (posttranscriptional regulation) that could be used to manipulate or modulate the expression of not only MMP-9 but also other genes regulated on the level of mRNA stability.
Binding free energy calculations that make use of alchemical pathways are becoming increasingly feasible thanks to advances in hardware and algorithms. Although relative binding free energy (RBFE) calculations are starting to find widespread use, absolute binding free energy (ABFE) calculations are still being explored mainly in academic settings due to the high computational requirements and still uncertain predictive value. However, in some drug design scenarios, RBFE calculations are not applicable and ABFE calculations could provide an alternative. Computationally cheaper end-point calculations in implicit solvent, such as molecular mechanics Poisson–Boltzmann surface area (MMPBSA) calculations, could too be used if one is primarily interested in a relative ranking of affinities. Here, we compare MMPBSA calculations to previously performed absolute alchemical free energy calculations in their ability to correlate with experimental binding free energies for three sets of bromodomain–inhibitor pairs. Different MMPBSA approaches have been considered, including a standard single-trajectory protocol, a protocol that includes a binding entropy estimate, and protocols that take into account the ligand hydration shell. Despite the improvements observed with the latter two MMPBSA approaches, ABFE calculations were found to be overall superior in obtaining correlation with experimental affinities for the test cases considered. A difference in weighted average Pearson () and Spearman () correlations of 0.25 and 0.31 was observed when using a standard single-trajectory MMPBSA setup ( = 0.64 and = 0.66 for ABFE; = 0.39 and = 0.35 for MMPBSA). The best performing MMPBSA protocols returned weighted average Pearson and Spearman correlations that were about 0.1 inferior to ABFE calculations: = 0.55 and = 0.56 when including an entropy estimate, and = 0.53 and = 0.55 when including explicit water molecules. Overall, the study suggests that ABFE calculations are indeed the more accurate approach, yet there is also value in MMPBSA calculations considering the lower compute requirements, and if agreement to experimental affinities in absolute terms is not of interest. Moreover, for the specific protein–ligand systems considered in this study, we find that including an explicit ligand hydration shell or a binding entropy estimate in the MMPBSA calculations resulted in significant performance improvements at a negligible computational cost.
IKZF1 deletion (ΔIKZF1) is an important predictor of relapse in childhood B-cell precursor acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Because of its clinical importance, we previously mapped breakpoints of intragenic deletions and developed a multiplex PCR assay to detect recurrent intragenic ΔIKZF1. Since the multiplex PCR was not able to detect complete deletions (IKZF1 Δ1-8), which account for ~30% of all ΔIKZF1, we aimed at investigating the genomic scenery of IKZF1 Δ1-8. Six samples of cases with IKZF1 Δ1-8 were analyzed by microarray assay, which identified monosomy 7, isochromosome 7q, and large interstitial deletions presenting breakpoints within COBL gene. Then, we established a multiplex ligation-probe amplification (MLPA) assay and screened copy number alterations within chromosome 7 in 43 diagnostic samples with IKZF1 Δ1-8. Our results revealed that monosomy and large interstitial deletions within chromosome 7 are the main causes of IKZF1 Δ1-8. Detailed analysis using long distance inverse PCR showed that six patients (16%) had large interstitial deletions starting within intronic regions of COBL at diagnosis, which is ~611 Kb downstream of IKZF1, suggesting that COBL is a hotspot for ΔIKZF1. We also investigated a series of 25 intragenic deletions (Δ2–8, Δ3–8 or Δ4–8) and 24 relapsed samples, and found one IKZF1-COBL tail-to-tail fusion, thus supporting that COBL is a novel hotspot for ΔIKZF1. Finally, using RIC score methodology, we show that breakpoint sequences of IKZF1 Δ1-8 are not analog to RAG-recognition sites, suggesting a different mechanism of error promotion than that suggested for intragenic ΔIKZF1.
Systematisch verabreichte Chemotherapeutika sind oft uneffektiv bei der Behandlung von Krankheiten des zentralen Nervensystems (ZNS). Eine der Ursachen hierfür ist der unzureichende Arzneistoff-Transport ins Gehirn aufgrund der Blut-Hirn-Schranke. Eine der Strategien für den nicht-invasiven Wirkstoff-Transport ins Gehirn ist die Verwendung von Nanopartikeln. Polybutylcyanoacrylat-Nanopartikel, die mit Polysorbat 80 (Tween® 80) überzogen wurden, können die Blut-Hirn-Schranke passieren und somit Wirkstoffe ins Gehirn transportieren. Wird die Blut-Hirn-Schranke durch einen Hirntumor partiell beschädigt und hierdurch ihre Permeabilität am Ort des Tumors erhöht, können Nanopartikel den Tumor zusätzlich durch den sogenannten EPR-Effekt erreichen. Im ersten Teil der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde die Beladung der Nanopartikel durch Variation der Formulierungparameter mit dem Ziel optimiert, eine Formulierung mit höherer Wirksamkeit für die Therapie von Glioblastom-tragenden Ratten zu entwickeln. Außerdem wurde das Potential von Doxorubicin, das an mit „Stealth Agents“ überzogenen Polybutylcyanoacrylat-Nanopartikel gebunden war, für die Chemotherapie von Hirntumoren untersucht. Im zweiten Teil dieser Studie wurden die Gehirn- und Körperverteilung in gesunden und in Glioblastom-101/8-tragenden Ratten nach i.v.-Gabe von Poly(butyl-2-cyano[3- 14C]acrylat)-Nanopartikeln, die mit Polysorbat 80 beschichtet wurden, und solchen, die noch zusätzlich mit Doxorubicin geladen waren (DOX-14C-PBCA + PS), untersucht. Die Standardformulierung von Doxubicin-Polybutylcyanoacrylat-Nanopartikeln (DOX-NP) wurde durch anionische Polymerisierung von Butylcyanoacrylat in Anwesenheit von DOX hergestellt. Zusätzlich wurden unterschiedliche DOX-NP Formulierungen durch Veränderung der Herstellung produziert. Das therapeutische Potential der Formulierungen wurde in Ratten mit ins Gehirn transplantieren Glioblastom 101/8 untersucht. Neben Polysorbat 80 wurden Poloxamer 188 und Poloxamin 908 als Überzugsmaterial verwendet. Die Resultate ergaben, dass die mit Polysorbat 80 überzogene Standardformulierung am effektivsten war. Die höhere Wirksamkeit von DOX-NP+PS 80 könnte durch die Fähigkeit dieser Träger erklärt werden, den Wirkstoff während eines frühen Stadiums der Tumorentwicklung durch einen Rezeptor-vermittelten Mechanismus, der durch den PS 80-Überzug aktiviert wurde über die intakte Blut-Hirn-Schranke, zu transportieren. Unsere Ergebnisse zeigen auch, dass Poloxamer 188 und Poloxamin 908 den antitumoralen Effekt von DOX-PBCA beträchtlich verbessern. Der anti-tumorale Effekt dieser Formulierungen könnte möglicherweise dem EPR-Effekt zugeschrieben werden. Es ist bekannt, dass die tumorale Arzneistoff-Aufnahme durch den EPR-Effektes für lang-zirkulierende Wirkstoffträger ausgeprägter ist und so mehr Wirkstoff durch die Tumor-geschädigte Blut-Hirn-Schranke gelangt. Unbeschichtete Nanopartikel, Polysorbat 80-beschichtete Nanopartikel oder mit Doxorubicin beladene und mit Polysorbat 80 beschichtete Nanopartikel wurden in gesunden und Tumor-tragenden Ratten injiziert. Diese Nanopartikel-Präparationen zeigten einer unterschiedliche Korpenverteilung in den Ratten. Unbeschichtete Nanopartikel sammelten sich in den RES-Organen an. Mit PS 80 beschichtete NP reduzierten die Aufnahme der NP in Leber und Milz, während sich die Konzentration der NP in der Lunge erhöhte. Diese Beobachtungen deuten darauf hin, dass die Änderung der Oberflächeneigenschaften der NP durch das Tensid, zu einer Interaktion mit unterschiedlichen Opsoninen führt, welches die Aufnahme der NP von verschiedenen phagozitierenden Zellen erleichtert. Hingegen war die Aufnahme der mit DOX beladenen, PS 80-beschichteten Nanopartikel den unbeschichteten Partikel ähnlich. Im Vergleich mit gesunden Ratten und mit Tumor-tragenden Ratten hingegen war die Konzentration der NP im Gehirn von Tumor tragenden Ratten 10 Tage nach der Tumor-implantation signifikant höher. In Anwesenheit des Glioblastoms ist der Transport von NP in das Gehirn das Resultat verschiedener Faktoren: zusätzlich zur Fähigkeit von PS 80-Nanopartikeln, die Blut-Hirn-Schranke zu passieren, extravasieren diese Träger wegen des EPR Effekts über das durch den Tumor undichte Endothelium. Die Konzentration von PS 80 [14C]-PBCA NP war im Glioblastom signifikant höher als mit DOX [14C]-PBCA NP. Dieses Phänomen kann durch die unterschiedliche Mikroumgebung von zerebralem intra-tumoralen und intaktem Gehirngewebe erklärt werde. Insbesondere können sich die positive Ladung der tumoralen Regionen und die positive Ladung der DOX [14C]-PBCA NP negativ beeinflussen. Dennoch waren die Doxorubicin-Konzentration in Glioblastom ausreichend, einen therapeutischen Effekt zu ermöglichen.
Top-down and bottom-up approaches are the general methods used to analyse proteomic samples today, however, the bottom-up approach has been dominant in the last decade. Establishing a bottom-up method involves not only the choice of adequate instruments and the optimisation of the experimental parameters, but also choosing the right experimental conditions and sample preparation steps. LC-ESI MS/MS has widely been used in this field due to its advanced automation. The primary objective of the present study was to establish a sensitive high-throughput nLC-MALDI MS/MS method for the identification and characterisation of proteins in biological samples. The method establishment included optimisation and validation of parameters such as the capillaries in the HPLC systems, gradient slopes, column temperature, spotting frequencies or the MS and MS/MS acquisition methods. The optimisation was performed using two HPLC-systems (Agilent 1100 series and Proxeon Easy nLC system), three spotters and the 4800 MALDI-TOF/TOF analyzer. Furthermore, samples preparation protocols were modified to fit to the established nLCMALDI- TOF/TOF-platform. The potentials of this method was demonstrated by the successful analysis of complex protein samples isolated from lipid particles, pre-adipocytes/adipocytes tissues, membrane proteins and proteins pulled-down from protein-proteins interaction studies. Despite the small amount of proteins in the lipid particles or oil bodies, and the challenges encountered in studying such proteins, 41(6 novel + 14 mammal specific + 21 visceral specific) proteins were added to the already existing proteins of the secretome of human subcutaneous (pre)adipocytes and 6 novel proteins localised in the yeast lipid particles. Protein-protein interaction studies present another area of application. Here the analytical challenges are mostly due to the loss of binding partner upon sample clean-up and to differentiate from non-specific background. Novel interaction partners for AF4•MLL and AF4 protein complex were identified. Furthermore, a novel sample protocol for the analysis of membrane proteins, based on the less specific protease, elastase, was established. Compared to trypsin, a higher sequence coverage and higher coverage of the transmembrane domains were achieved. The use of this enzyme in proteomics has been limited because of its non specific cleavage. However, from the results obtained in these studies, elastase was found to cleave preferentially at the C-terminal site of the amino acids AVLIST. The advantage of the established protocol over conventional protocols is that the same enzyme can be used for shaving of the soluble dormains of intact proteins in membranes and the digestion of the hydrophobic domain after solubilisation. Furthermore, the solvents used are compatible with the nLC-MALDI method setup. In addition, it was also shown that for less specific enzymes, a higher mass accuracy is required to reduce the rate of false positive identifications, since current search engines are not perfectly adapted for these types of enzymes. A brief statistical analysis of the MS/MS data obtained from the LC-MALDI TOF/TOF system showed that for less specific enzymes, under high-energy collision conditions, approximately 43 % of the fragment ions could not be matched to the known y- b type ions and their resultant internal fragments. This limitation greatly influenced the search results. However, this limitation can be overcome by modifying the N-terminal amino acids with basic moieties such as TMT. The use of elastase as a digestion enzyme in proteomic workflow further increased the complexity of the sample. Therefore, orthogonal multidimensional separation was necessary. Offgel-IEF was used as the separation technique for the first dimension. Here peptides are separated according to the pI. However, the acquired samples could not be loaded to the nLC due to the high viscosity of the concentrated samples when using the standard protocol. In order to achieve compatibility of the Offgel-IEF to the nLC-MALDI-TOF/TOF-platform, the separation protocol of the Offgel-IEF was modified by omitting the glycerol, which was the cause of the viscous solution. The novel glycerol free protocol is advantageous over the conventional method because the samples could directly be picked-up and loaded onto the pre-column without resulting in an increase in back pressure or a subsequent pre-column clogging. The glycerol free protocol was then assessed using purple membrane and membrane fraction of C. glutamicum. The results obtained were comparable to those applied in published reports. Therefore, the absence of glycerol did not affect the separation efficiency of the Offgel-IEF. In addition the applicability of elastase and the glycerol free Offgel-IEF for quantitation of membrane proteins was assessed. Most of the unique peptides identified were in the acidic region and 85 % were focused only into one fraction and approximately 95 % in only two fractions. These results are in accordance with previously published results (Lengqvist et al., 2007). When compared with theoretical digests of the proteins identified in this study, it can be concluded that basic moiety (TMT) on the peptide backbone, did not affect the separation efficiency of the Offgel-IEF. In an applied study, changes in the protein content of yeast strain grown in two different media were relatively quantified. For example, prominent proteins, such as the hexose tranporter proteins responsible for transporting glucose accross the membrane, were successfully quantified. Last but not least, the nLC-MALDI-TOF/TOF platform also served as a basis for the development of a high-throughput method for the identification of protein phosphorylation. The establishment of such a method using MALDI has been challenging due to the lack of sensitive matrices, such as CHCA for non-modified peptides, which exhibit a homogenous crystallisation and thus yield stable signal intensity over a long period of time in an automated setup. The first step of this method was the establishment of a matrix/matrix mixture with better crystal morphology and higher analyte signal intensity than the matrix of choice, i.e. DHB. From MS and MS/MS measurements of standard phosphopeptides, a combination of FCCA and CHAC in a 3:1 ratio and 3 mM NH4H2PO4 facilitated high analyte signal intensities and good fragmentation behaviour. Combining a custom-packed biphasic column for the enrichment of phosphopeptides, the applicability of the matrix mixture was assessed in anautomated phosphopeptide analysis using standard phosphopeptides spiked to a 20-fold excess BSA digest. These analyses showed that this method is reproducibile and both flow throughs can be analysed. Applying the method to the analysis of 2 standard phosphoproteins, alpha/beta-casein, and a leukemia related protein, ENL, 13 phosphopeptides from both alpha/beta-Casein and 13 phosphopeptides with 6 phosphorylation sites from the ENL were identified. As a general conclusion, it can be stated that the nLC-MALDI-TOF/TOF method established here in various modifications for different analytical purposes is a robust platform for proteomic analyses.
P2X receptor subunits assemble in the ER of Xenopus oocytes to homomultimeric or heteromultimeric complexes that appear as ATP-gated cation channels at the cell surface. In this work it was intended to investigate the posttranslational modifications such as N-linked glycosylation and disulfide bond formation that is undergone by P2X1 receptors. In addition, the aim of this study was to examine the expression and the quaternary structure of selected P2X receptor isoforms in Xenopus oocytes. The investigation of the quaternary structure of the metabolically or surface labeled His-P2X2 receptor by BN-PAGE revealed that, while the protein complex is only partially assembling in oocytes, the plasma membrane form of the His-P2X2 receptor assembled into trimeric and even hexameric complex as was shown by the BN-PAGE analysis. Besides this finding, it is shown that the His-P2X5 protein that was purified from metabolically or surface labeled oocytes appeared as one single band corresponding to a trimer when analyzed by BN-PAGE. The present study signified that His-P2X6 alone does not reach a defined assembly status and possibly needs the hetero-polymerisation with other P2X subunits to assemble properly for insertion into the plasma membrane. Another finding of this study is that the P2X1 and P2X2 subunits could exist as heteromultimeric protein complexes in the plasma membrane of cells. Purification of surface expressed His-P2X2 subunit allowed the detection of co-injected P2X1 subunit and vice versa in Xenopus oocytes. Incubation with glutardialdehyde led to the cross-linking of P2X2 and P2X1 subunits to dimers and trimers. BN-PAGE analysis of the P2X2/P2X1 complex isolated under nondenaturing conditions from surface-labeled oocytes yielded one distinct band corresponding to a trimeric complex. The analysis of a C-terminally GFP tagged His-P2X1 fusion protein by confocal fluorescence microscopy revealed small clusters of the protein complexes, approximately 4-6 µm in diameter from a diffuse distribution of the protein in the plasma membranes of Xenopus oocytes. The cross-linking or BN-PAGE analysis of the fusion protein resulted in proteins that migrated quantitatively as trimers when purified in digitonin. The analysis of some chimeric constructs confirmed the results of others, which showed that desensitization can be removed from the P2X1 or P2X3 receptor by providing the N-domain from the P2X2 receptor (Werner et al., 1996) The exchange of this domain did not alter the quaternary structure of the chimeras, which showed to be present as trimers when expressed in oocytes. In addition, glycan minus mutants of His-P2X1 receptor were analyzed to examine whether carbohydrate side chains are important for P2X1 subunit assembly, surface expression, or ligand recognition. SDS-PAGE analysis of glycan minus mutants carrying Q instead of N at five individual NXT/S sequons reveals that 284N remains unused because of a proline in the 4 position. The four other sites (153Asn, 184N, 210N, and 300N) carry N-glycans, but solely 300N acquires complex-type carbohydrates. Like parent P2X1 receptor, glycan minus mutants migrate as homotrimers when resolved by blue native PAGE. Recording of ATP-gated currents revealed that elimination of 153N or 210N diminishes or increases functional expression levels, respectively. In addition, elimination of 210N causes a 3-fold reduction of the potency for ATP. If three or all four N-glycosylation sites are simultaneously eliminated, formation of P2X1 receptors is severely impaired or abolished, respectively. It is concluded that at least one N-glycan per subunit of either position is absolutely required for the formation of P2X1 receptors. The SDS-PAGE analysis of surface-labeled His-P2X2 and His-P2X5 receptors revealed that, while the His-P2X2 subunit acquires three complex-type carbohydrates, in case of His-P2X5 polypeptide, only two of the three N-glycans could obtain complex-type carbohydrates during transit of the Golgi apparatus. Furthermore, it was shown that DTT treatment blocked the appearance of newly made His-P2X1 at the plasma membranes of Xenopus oocytes. Also, it was revealed that the effects of DTT on His-P2X1 biogenesis are fully reversible. Removal of the reducing agent leads to subsequent folding and assembly into His-P2X1 receptor complex, followed by transport to the cell surface. The characterization of cysteine minus mutants by SDS PAGE and BN-PAGE demonstrated that, the cysteine substitution in the first cysteine rich domain (C1 - C6) does not have a major effect on assembly for the mutant receptors. In contrast, the replacement of the four cysteine residues (C7 - C10) from the second cysteine rich domain demonstrate a critical importance of this domain for the functional surface expression of P2X1 receptor. The investigations of several double cysteine mutants revealed that according to a similarity in the sensitivity to ATP, the C1 and C6, as well as C2 and C4 and finally C3 and C5 are pairs forming two disulfide bonds in each P2X1 subunit.
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disorder world wide, causing presenile dementia and death of millions of people. During AD damage and massive loss of brain cells occur. Alzheimer’s disease is genetically heterogeneous and may therefore represent a common phenotype that results from various genetic and environmental influences and risk factors. In approximately 10% of patients, changes of the genetic information were detected (gene mutations). In these cases, Alzheimer’s disease is inherited as an autosomal dominant trait (familial Alzheimer’s disease, FAD). In rare cases of familial Alzheimer’s disease (about 1-3%), mutations have been detected in genes on chromosomes 14 and 1 (encoding for Presenilin 1 and 2, respectively), and on chromosome 21 encoding for the amyloid precursor protein (APP), which is responsible for the release of the cell-damaging protein amyloid-beta (ß-amyloid, Aß). Familial forms of early-onset Alzheimer’s disease are rare; however, their importance extends far beyond their frequency, because they allow to identify some of the critical pathogenetic pathways of the disease. All familial Alzheimer mutations share a common feature: they lead to an enhanced production of the Aß, which is the major constituent of senile plaques in brains of AD patients. New data indicates that Aß promotes neuronal degeneration. Therefore, one aim of these thesis was to elucidate the neurotoxic biochemical pathways induced by Aß, investigating the effect of the FAD Swedish APP double mutation (APPsw) on oxidative stress-induced cell death mechanisms. This mutation results in a three- to sixfold increased Aß production compared to wild-type APP (APPwt). As cell models, the neuronal PC12 (rat pheochromocytoma) and the HEK (human embryonic kidney 293) cell lines were used, which have been transfected with human wiltyp APP or human APP containing the Swedish double mutation. The used cell models offer two important advantages. First, compared to experiments using high concentrations of Aß at micromolar levels applied extracellularly to cells, PC12 APPsw cells secret low Aß levels similar to the situation in FAD brains. Thus, this cell model represents a very suitable approach to elucidate the AD-specific cell death pathways mimicking physiological conditions. Second, these two cell lines (PC12 and HEK APPwt and APPsw) with different production levels of Aß may additionally allow to study dose-dependent effects of Aß. The here obtained results provide evidence for the enhanced cell vulnerability caused by the Swedish APP mutation and elucidate the cell death mechanism probably initiated by intracellulary produced Aß. Here it seems likely that increased production of Aß at physiological levels primes APPsw PC12 cells to undergo cell death only after additional stress, while chronic high levels in HEK cells already lead to enhanced basal apoptotic levels. Crucial effects of the Swedish APP mutation include the impairments of cellular energy metabolism affecting mitochondrial membrane potential and ATP levels as well as the additional activation of caspase 2, caspase 8 and JNK in response to oxidative stress. Thereby ,the following model can be proposed: PC12 cells harboring the Swedish APP mutation have a reduced energy metabolism compared to APPwt or control cells. However, this effect does not leads to enhanced basal apoptotic levels of cultured cells. An exposure of PC12 cells to oxidative stress leads to mitochondrial dysfunction, e.g., decrease in mitochondrial membrane potential and depletion in ATP. The consequence is the activation of the intrinsic apoptotic pathway releasing cytochrome c and Smac resulting in the activation of caspase 9. This effect is amplified by the overexpression of APP, since both APPsw and APPwt PC12 cells show enhanced cytochrome c and Smac release as well as enhanced caspase 9 activity as vector transfected control. In APPsw PC12 cells a parallel pathway is additionally emphased. Due to reduced ATP levels or enhanced Aß production JNK is activated. Furthermore, the extrinsic apoptotic pathway is enhanced, since caspase 8 and caspase 2 activation was clearly enhanced by the Swedish APP mutation. Both pathways may then converge by activating the effector enzyme, caspase 3, and the execution of cell death. In addition, caspase independent effects also needs to be considered. One possibility could be the implication of AIF since AIF expression was found to be induced by the Swedish APP mutation. In APPsw HEK cells high chronic Aß levels leads to enhanced apoptotic levels, reduce mitochondrial membrane potential and ATP levels even under basal conditions. Summarizing, a hypothetical sequence of events is proposed linking FAD, Aß production, JNK-activation, mitochondrial dysfunction with caspase pathway and neuronal loss for our cell model. The brain has a high metabolic rate and is exposured to gradually rising levels of oxidative stress during life. In Swedish FAD patients the levels of oxidative stress are increased in the temporal inferior cortex. This study using a cell model mimicking the in vivo situation in AD brains indicates that probably both, increased Aß production and the gradual rise of oxidative stress throughout life converge at a final common pathway of an increased vulnerability of neurons to apoptotic cell death from FAD patients. Presenilin (PS) 1 is an aspartyl protease, involved in the gamma-secretase mediated proteolysis of Amyloid-ß-protein (Aß), the major constituent of senile plaques in brains of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) patients. Recent studies have suggested an additional role for presenilin proteins in apoptotic cell death observed in AD. Since PS 1 is proteolytic cleaved by caspase 3, it has been prosposed that the resulting C-terminal fragment of PS1 (PSCas) could play a role in signal transduction during apoptosis. Moreover, it was shown that mutant presenilins causing early-onset of familial Alzheimer's disease (FAD) may render cells vulnerable to apoptosis. The mechanism by which PS1 regulates apoptotic cell death is yet not understood. Therefore one aim of our present study was to clarify the involvement of PS1 in the proteolytic cascade of apoptosis and if the cleavage of PS1 by caspase 3 has an regulatory function. Here it is demonstrated that both, PS1 and PS1Cas lead to a reduced vulnerability of PC12 and Jurkat cells to different apoptotic stimuli. However a mutation at the caspase 3 recognition site (D345A/ PSmut), which inhibits cleavage of PS1 by caspase 3, show no differences in the effect of PS1 or PSCas towards apoptotic stimuli. This suggest that proteolysis of PS1 by caspase 3 is not a determinant, but only a secondary effect during apoptosis. Since several FAD mutation distributed through the whole PS1 gene lead to enhanced apoptosis, an abolishment of the antiapoptotic effect of PS1 might contribute to the massive neurodegeneration in early age of FAD patients. Here, the regulate properties of PS1 in apoptosis may not be through an caspase 3 dependent cleavage and generation of PSCas, but rather through interaction of PS1 with other proteins involved in apoptosis.
Rho-family GTPases like RhoA and Rac-1 are potent regulators of cellular signaling that control gene expression, migration and inflammation. Activation of Rho-GTPases has been linked to podocyte dysfunction, a feature of chronic kidney diseases (CKD). We investigated the effect of Rac-1 and Rho kinase (ROCK) inhibition on progressive renal failure in mice and studied the underlying mechanisms in podocytes. SV129 mice were subjected to 5/6-nephrectomy which resulted in arterial hypertension and albuminuria. Subgroups of animals were treated with the Rac-1 inhibitor EHT1846, the ROCK inhibitor SAR407899 and the ACE inhibitor Ramipril. Only Ramipril reduced hypertension. In contrast, all inhibitors markedly attenuated albumin excretion as well as glomerular and tubulo-interstitial damage. The combination of SAR407899 and Ramipril was more effective in preventing albuminuria than Ramipril alone. To study the involved mechanisms, podocytes were cultured from SV129 mice and exposed to static stretch in the Flexcell device. This activated RhoA and Rac-1 and led via TGFβ to apoptosis and a switch of the cells into a more mesenchymal phenotype, as evident from loss of WT-1 and nephrin and induction of α-SMA and fibronectin expression. Rac-1 and ROCK inhibition as well as blockade of TGFβ dramatically attenuated all these responses. This suggests that Rac-1 and RhoA are mediators of podocyte dysfunction in CKD. Inhibition of Rho-GTPases may be a novel approach for the treatment of CKD.
IL-18, a recently identified member of IL-1 family, is now recognized as an important regulator of innate and acquired immune responses. Therefore, the antitumor activities of IL-18 have been investigated. IL-18 has been shown to induce IFN-γ production by T, B, and NK cells, enhances NK cell activity, activates Fas ligandmediated apoptosis of the tumor cells, and improves the overall antitumor immunity. KG-1 cells were derived from a patient with acute myeloid leukemia (AML). IL-18 has been shown to induce IFN-γ production in those leukemic cells. TLR-3, in addition to its ability to recognize viral double stranded RNA, also can recognize the synthetic analogue poly(I:C) and induces type I IFN, inflammatory cytokine production, e.g TNF-α, and maturation of denderitic cells. In the present work the potential modulatory effect of PIC on IFN-γ and TNF-α production by KG-1 cells treated with IL-18 was investigated. Indeed, PIC strongly amplified the production of IFN-γ induced by IL-18 on mRNA and protein levels via NF-κB as well as p38 and JNK MAPK activation. Compared to IFN-γ, TNF-α showed different behaviour in KG-1 cells. On mRNA level I found only weak induction of TNF-α by IL-18 which was potentiated in the presence of PIC. Similarly, the release of TNF-α by IL-18 plus PIC required NF-κB as well as p38 and JNK MAPK activation. Furthermore, in the present work I found that TLR-3 is required for IFN-γ and TNF-α production. In addition, it is demonstrated by immunofluoresence that TLR-3 is localized in cytoplasm but not on the cell surface in KG-1 cells. Recently, it has been demonstrated that IFN-γ shows therapeutic potential as detected in AML blasts, specifically via inhibition of proliferation and induction of apoptosis. Thus our data could serve as a rationale for the clinical use of PIC and IL-18 in combination therapy. In search for new cytokines potentially modulated by the combination IL-18 plus PIC in KG-1 cells, cytokine antibody array analysis was performed. I found an upregulation of expected genes like IP-10 but most interestingly unexpected upregulation of PDGF-AA. Searching for detailed mechanisms of PDGF-AA induction, I found that neither p38 nor JNK is involved in PDGF-AA production but NF-κB is essential for the expression of PDGF-AA. Furthermore, I found that PDGF-AA is not able to increase the proliferation of KG-1 cells. PDGF and TGF-β are examples of signaling molecules which control the growth, survival, motility, and differentiation of cells. Therefore, the release of TGF-β by IL-18 plus PIC was monitored by ELISA. The level of TGF-β in cellular supernatants revealed that neither PIC nor IL-18 was able to significantly mediate release of TGF-β indicating that only PDGF-AA but not TGF-β is induced by PIC and IL-18 in KG-1 cells. To the best of our knowledge this is the first time that IL-18 or PIC is shown to induce the expression of PDGF-AA in KG-1 cells.
5-Lipoxygenase (5LO) is a key enzyme in biosynthesis of leukotrienes (LTs), lipid mediators of inflammation. To study the roles of the 5LO accessory proteins coactosin-like protein (CLP) and 5LO-activating protein (FLAP), we knocked down these proteins in human monocytic cells. Our results show that expression of CLP was required for full cellular 5LO activity when cells were activated with Ca2+ ionophore, as well as with a physiological stimulus (lipopolysaccharide followed by N-formylmethionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine). During LT biosynthesis in stimulated cells, 5LO typically translocates to the nuclear membrane. This redistribution, from cytosolic to perinuclear, was clearly compromised in both CLP- and FLAP-deficient cells. Our results suggest that the CLP–5LO interaction may be a target for reduced LT production.
Serine/arginine-protein kinase 1 (SRPK1) regulates alternative splicing of VEGF-A to pro-angiogenic isoforms and SRPK1 inhibition can restore the balance of pro/antiangiogenic isoforms to normal physiological levels. The lack of potency and selectivity of available compounds has limited development of SRPK1 inhibitors, with the control of alternative splicing by splicing factor-specific kinases yet to be translated. We present here compounds that occupy a binding pocket created by the unique helical insert of SRPK1, and trigger a backbone flip in the hinge region, that results in potent (<10 nM) and selective inhibition of SRPK1 kinase activity. Treatment with these inhibitors inhibited SRPK1 activity and phosphorylation of serine/arginine splicing factor 1 (SRSF1), resulting in alternative splicing of VEGF-A from pro-angiogenic to antiangiogenic isoforms. This property resulted in potent inhibition of blood vessel growth in models of choroidal angiogenesis in vivo. This work identifies tool compounds for splice isoform selective targeting of pro-angiogenic VEGF, which may lead to new therapeutic strategies for a diversity of diseases where dysfunctional splicing drives disease development.
Many cancers have the tumor suppressor p53 inactivated by mutation, making reactivation of mutant p53 with small molecules a promising strategy for the development of novel anticancer therapeutics. The oncogenic p53 mutation Y220C, which accounts for approximately 100,000 cancer cases per year, creates an extended surface crevice in the DNA-binding domain, which destabilizes p53 and causes denaturation and aggregation. Here, we describe the structure-guided design of a novel class of small-molecule Y220C stabilizers and the challenging synthetic routes developed in the process. The synthesized chemical probe MB710, an aminobenzothiazole derivative, binds tightly to the Y220C pocket and stabilizes p53-Y220C in vitro. MB725, an ethylamide analogue of MB710, induced selective viability reduction in several p53-Y220C cancer cell lines while being well tolerated in control cell lines. Reduction of viability correlated with increased and selective transcription of p53 target genes such as BTG2, p21, PUMA, FAS, TNF, and TNFRSF10B, which promote apoptosis and cell cycle arrest, suggesting compound-mediated transcriptional activation of the Y220C mutant. Our data provide a framework for the development of a class of potent, non-toxic compounds for reactivating the Y220C mutant in anticancer therapy.
Many oncogenic mutants of the tumor suppressor p53 are conformationally unstable, including the frequently occurring Y220C mutant. We have previously developed several small-molecule stabilizers of this mutant. One of these molecules, PhiKan083, 1-(9-ethyl-9H-carbazole-3-yl)-N-methylmethanamine, binds to a mutation-induced surface crevice with a KD = 150 μM, thereby increasing the melting temperature of the protein and slowing its rate of aggregation. Incorporation of fluorine atoms into small molecule ligands can substantially improve binding affinity to their protein targets. We have, therefore, harnessed fluorine–protein interactions to improve the affinity of this ligand. Step-wise introduction of fluorines at the carbazole ethyl anchor, which is deeply buried within the binding site in the Y220C–PhiKan083 complex, led to a 5-fold increase in affinity for a 2,2,2-trifluoroethyl anchor (ligand efficiency of 0.3 kcal mol–1 atom–1). High-resolution crystal structures of the Y220C–ligand complexes combined with quantum chemical calculations revealed favorable interactions of the fluorines with protein backbone carbonyl groups (Leu145 and Trp146) and the sulfur of Cys220 at the mutation site. Affinity gains were, however, only achieved upon trifluorination, despite favorable interactions of the mono- and difluorinated anchors with the binding pocket, indicating a trade-off between energetically favorable protein–fluorine interactions and increased desolvation penalties. Taken together, the optimized carbazole scaffold provides a promising starting point for the development of high-affinity ligands to reactivate the tumor suppressor function of the p53 mutant Y220C in cancer cells.
The ability to permeate accross the blood brain barrier (BBB) is essential for drugs acting on the central nervous system (CNS). Thus, systems that allow rapid and inexpensive screening of the BBB-permeability properties of novel lead compounds are of great importance for speeding up the drug discovery process in the CNS-area. We used immortalized porcine brain microvessel endothelial cells (PBMECICl-2) to develop a model for measurement of blood-brain barrier permeation of CNS active drugs. Investigation of different cell culture conditions showed, that a system using C6 astrocyte glioma conditioned medium and addition of a cyclic AMP analog in combination with a type IV phosphodiesterase inhibitor (R020-1724) leads to cell layers with transendothelial electrical resistance values up to 300 Ω.cm2. Permeability studies with U-[14C]sucroseg ave a permeability coefficient Pe of 3.24 + 0.14 × 10−4 cm/min, which is in good agreement to published values and thus indicates the formation of tight junctions in vitro.
Background: A delta and C fibers are the major pain-conducting nerve fibers, activate only partly the same brain areas, and are differently involved in pain syndromes. Whether a stimulus excites predominantly A delta or C fibers is a commonly asked question in basic pain research but a quick test was lacking so far. Methodology/Principal Findings: Of 77 verbal descriptors of pain sensations, "pricking", "dull" and "pressing" distinguished best (95% cases correctly) between A delta fiber mediated (punctate pressure produced by means of von Frey hairs) and C fiber mediated (blunt pressure) pain, applied to healthy volunteers in experiment 1. The sensation was assigned to A delta fibers when "pricking" but neither "dull" nor "pressing" were chosen, and to C fibers when the sum of the selections of "dull" or "pressing" was greater than that of the selection of "pricking". In experiment 2, with an independent cohort, the three-descriptor questionnaire achieved sensitivity and specificity above 0.95 for distinguishing fiber preferential non-mechanical induced pain (laser heat, exciting A delta fibers, and 5-Hz electric stimulation, exciting C fibers). Conclusion: A three-item verbal rating test using the words "pricking", "dull", and "pressing" may provide sufficient information to characterize a pain sensation evoked by a physical stimulus as transmitted via A delta or via C fibers. It meets the criteria of a screening test by being easy to administer, taking little time, being comfortable in handling, and inexpensive while providing high specificity for relevant information.
Resistance in glucocorticoid-induced apoptosis is associated with poor prognosis for long term survival in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). As Smac mimetics have been shown to reactivate apoptosis by antagonizing Inhibitor of Apoptosis (IAP) proteins, we investigate the potential of the Smac mimetic BV6 to overcome glucocorticoid-resistance in ALL. This study shows that BV6 synergistically cooperates with glucocorticoids to trigger apoptosis and to suppress clonogenic growth of pediatric ALL cells. Of note, the BV6/glucocorticoid combination treatment also induces cell death in cells having defects in the apoptotic signaling cascade by inducing a switch from apoptotic to necroptotic cell death. The clinical relevance of our novel combination treatment is underscored by parallel experiments in primary pediatric ALL samples, in which glucocorticoids and BV6 act together to induce cell death in a synergistic manner. Importantly, the addition of BV6 enhances the anti-leukemic effects of glucocorticoids in an in vivo mouse model of pediatric ALL without causing substantial side effects, highlighting the potency of a BV6/glucocorticoid combination treatment. In contrast, BV6 does not increase cytotoxicity of glucocorticoids against several non-malignant cell types of the lympho-hematopoietic system. Furthermore, we have identified the novel underlying mechanism of BV6/glucocorticoid-induced apoptosis by showing that BV6 and glucocorticoids synergistically act together to promote assembly of the ripoptosome, a RIP1/FADD/caspase-8-containing cell death complex. Ripoptosome assembly is critically required for BV6/Dexamethasone-induced cell death, since genetic silencing of its members, i.e. RIP1, reduces ROS production, caspase activation and most importantly cell death induction. BV6/glucocorticoid combination treatment promotes ripoptosome assembly by inhibition of both of its negative regulators, IAP proteins and cFLIP. Thus, we identify that BV6 and glucocorticoids cooperate together to reduce cIAP1, cIAP2 and XIAP protein levels and cFLIP expression. Ripoptosome formation occurs independently of autocrine/paracrine loops of death receptor ligands, since blocking antibodies for TNFα, TRAIL or CD95L or genetic silencing of their corresponding receptors fail to rescue BV6/glucocorticoid-induced cell death. In summary, this study shows that the Smac mimetic BV6 sensitizes for glucocorticoid-induced apoptosis by promoting ripoptosome assembly with important implications for the treatment of childhood ALL.
Background: Birch pollen-allergic subjects produce polyclonal cross-reactive IgE antibodies that mediate pollen-associated food allergies. The major allergen Bet v 1 and its homologs in plant foods bind IgE in their native protein conformation. Information on location, number and clinical relevance of IgE epitopes is limited. We addressed the use of an allergen-related protein model to identify amino acids critical for IgE binding of PR-10 allergens.
Method: Norcoclaurine synthase (NCS) from meadow rue is structurally homologous to Bet v 1 but does not bind Bet v 1-reactive IgE. NCS was used as the template for epitope grafting. NCS variants were tested with sera from 70 birch pollen allergic subjects and with monoclonal antibody BV16 reported to compete with IgE binding to Bet v 1.
Results: We generated an NCS variant (Δ29NCSN57/I58E/D60N/V63P/D68K) harboring an IgE epitope of Bet v 1. Bet v 1-type protein folding of the NCS variant was evaluated by 1H-15N-HSQC NMR spectroscopy. BV16 bound the NCS variant and 71% (50/70 sera) of our study population showed significant IgE binding. We observed IgE and BV16 cross-reactivity to the epitope presented by the NCS variant in a subgroup of Bet v 1-related allergens. Moreover BV16 blocked IgE binding to the NCS variant. Antibody cross-reactivity depended on a defined orientation of amino acids within the Bet v 1-type conformation.
Conclusion: Our system allows the evaluation of patient-specific epitope profiles and will facilitate both the identification of clinically relevant epitopes as biomarkers and the monitoring of therapeutic outcomes to improve diagnosis, prognosis, and therapy of allergies caused by PR-10 proteins.
Single long-chain omega-3 fatty acids (e.g. docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) or eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA)) are known for their neuroprotective properties associated with ischemic stroke. This pilot study aimed to test the effectiveness of an acute treatment with a long-chain omega-3 lipid emulsion (Omegaven 10%®, OGV) that contains fish oil (DHA 18 mg/ml; EPA 21 mg/ml) and α-tocopherol (0.2 mg/ml) in a transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) model of ischemic stroke in mice. For this purpose, female CD-1 mice were anesthetized and subjected to 90 minutes of MCAO. To reflect a clinically relevant situation for an acute treatment, either after induction of stroke or after reperfusion, a single dose of OGV was injected intravenously into the tail vein (5 ml/kg b.w.). A neurological severity score was used to assess motor function and neurological outcome. Stroke-related parameters were determined 24 hours after MCAO. Microdialysis was used to collect samples from extracellular space of the striatum. Mitochondrial function was determined in isolated mitochondria or dissociated brain cells. Inflammation markers were measured in brain homogenate. According to control experiments, neuroprotective effects could be attributed to the long-chain omega-3 content of the emulsion. Intravenous injection of OGV reduced size and severity of stroke, restored mitochondrial function, and prevented excitotoxic glutamate release. Increases of pro-inflammatory markers (COX-2 and IL-6) were attenuated. Neurological severity scoring and neurochemical data demonstrated that acute OGV treatment shortly after induction of stroke was most efficient and able to improve short-term neurological outcome, reflecting the importance of an acute treatment to improve the outcome. Summarising, acute treatment of stroke with a single intravenous dose of OGV provided strong neuroprotective effects and was most effective when given immediately after onset of ischemia. As OGV is an approved fishoil emulsion for parenteral nutrition in humans, our results may provide first translational data for a possible early management of ischemic stroke with administration of OGV to prevent further brain damage.
Therapy of acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is unsatisfactory. Histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACi) are active against leukemic cells in vitro and in vivo. Clinical data suggest further testing of such epigenetic drugs and to identify mechanisms and markers for their efficacy. Primary and permanent AML cells were screened for viability, replication stress/DNA damage, and regrowth capacities after single exposures to the clinically used pan-HDACi panobinostat (LBH589), the class I HDACi entinostat/romidepsin (MS-275/FK228), the HDAC3 inhibitor RGFP966, the HDAC6 inhibitor marbostat-100, the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) indomethacin, and the replication stress inducer hydroxyurea (HU). Immunoblotting was used to test if HDACi modulate the leukemia-associated transcription factors β-catenin, Wilms tumor (WT1), and myelocytomatosis oncogene (MYC). RNAi was used to delineate how these factors interact. We show that LBH589, MS-275, FK228, RGFP966, and HU induce apoptosis, replication stress/DNA damage, and apoptotic fragmentation of β-catenin. Indomethacin destabilizes β-catenin and potentiates anti-proliferative effects of HDACi. HDACi attenuate WT1 and MYC caspase-dependently and -independently. Genetic experiments reveal a cross-regulation between MYC and WT1 and a regulation of β-catenin by WT1. In conclusion, reduced levels of β-catenin, MYC, and WT1 are molecular markers for the efficacy of HDACi. HDAC3 inhibition induces apoptosis and disrupts tumor-associated protein expression.
The most frequently used parameters to describe the barrier properties of endothelial cells (ECs) in vitro are (i) the macromolecular permeability, indicating the flux of a macromolecular tracer across the endothelium, and (ii) electrical impedance of ECs grown on gold-film electrodes reporting on the cell layer's tightness for ion flow. Due to the experimental differences between these approaches, inconsistent observations have been described. Here, we present the first direct comparison of these assays applied to one single cell type (human microvascular ECs) under the same experimental conditions. The impact of different pharmacological tools (histamine, forskolin, Y-27632, blebbistatin, TRAP) on endothelial barrier function was analyzed by Transwell(®) tracer assays and two commercial impedance devices (xCELLigence(®), ECIS(®)). The two impedance techniques provided very similar results for all compounds, whereas macromolecular permeability readings were found to be partly inconsistent with impedance. Possible reasons for these discrepancies are discussed. We conclude that the complementary combination of both approaches is highly recommended to overcome the restrictions of each assay. Since the nature of the growth support may contribute to the observed differences, structure-function relationships should be based on cells that are consistently grown on either permeable or impermeable growth supports in all experiments.
Full reconstruction of large lobula plate tangential cells in Drosophila from a 3D EM dataset
(2018)
With the advent of neurogenetic methods, the neural basis of behavior is presently being analyzed in more and more detail. This is particularly true for visually driven behavior of Drosophila melanogaster where cell-specific driver lines exist that, depending on the combination with appropriate effector genes, allow for targeted recording, silencing and optogenetic stimulation of individual cell-types. Together with detailed connectomic data of large parts of the fly optic lobe, this has recently led to much progress in our understanding of the neural circuits underlying local motion detection. However, how such local information is combined by optic flow sensitive large-field neurons is still incompletely understood. Here, we aim to fill this gap by a dense reconstruction of lobula plate tangential cells of the fly lobula plate. These neurons collect input from many hundreds of local motion-sensing T4/T5 neurons and connect them to descending neurons or central brain areas. We confirm all basic features of HS and VS cells as published previously from light microscopy. In addition, we identified the dorsal and the ventral centrifugal horizontal, dCH and vCH cell, as well as three VSlike cells, including their distinct dendritic and axonal projection area.
Background: The alpha-7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (alpha 7-nAChR) is well known as a potent calcium ionophore that, in the brain, has been implicated in excitotoxicity and hence in the underlying mechanisms of neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease. Previous research implied that the activity of this receptor may be modified by exposure to a peptide fragment derived from the C-terminal region of the enzyme acetylcholinesterase. This investigation was undertaken to determine if the functional changes observed could be attributed to peptide binding interaction with the alpha 7-nAChR, or peptide modulation of receptor expression. Methodology/Principal Findings: This study provides evidence that two peptides derived from the C-terminus of acetylcholinesterase, not only selectively displace specific bungarotoxin binding at the alpha 7-nAChR, but also alter receptor binding properties for its familiar ligands, including the alternative endogenous agonist choline. Of more long-term significance, these peptides also induce upregulation of alpha 7-nAChR mRNA and protein expression, as well as enhancing receptor trafficking to the plasma membrane. Conclusions/Significance: The results reported here demonstrate a hitherto unknown relationship between the alpha 7-nAChR and the non-enzymatic functions of acetylcholinesterase, mediated independently by its C-terminal domain. Such an interaction may prove valuable as a pharmacological tool, prompting new approaches for understanding, and combating, the process of neurodegeneration.
Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disorder marked by progressive loss of memory and cognitive ability. The pathology of AD is characterised by the presence of amyloid plaques, intracellular neurofibrillary tangles and pronounced cell death. The aim of this thesis was to investigate pathways involved in the Aß cascade of neurodegeneration. Since novel findings indicate that already this Aß species exerts neurotoxic effects long before hyperphosphorylated tau, neurofibrillary tangles and extracellular Aß plaques appear, the investigations were accomplished with specific regard to the effects of intracellular Aß. The Swedish double mutation in the APP gene results in six- to eightfold increased Aß production of both Aß1-40 and Aß1-42 compared to human wildtype APP cells (APPwt). Data obtained from PC12 cells indicate that it is possible to specifically increase the Aß load without enhancing APP expression levels. On the basis of these findings, it seemed possible to investigate dose-dependent effects of Aß in multiple experimental designs. These assay designs were created in order to mimick different in-vivo situations that are discussed to occur in AD patients: APPsw PC12 cells exhibit low physiological concentrations of Aß within picomolar range in contrast to APPsw HEK cells, expressing Aß levels within the nanomolar range. Of note, the APPsw HEK cells showed a specific and highly significant increase in the intracellular accumulation of insoluble Aß1-42. Moreover, an intracellular accumulation of Aß and APP was found in the mitochondria of the HEK APPsw cells suggesting a direct impact on mitochondrial function on these cells. This effect might finally lead to disturbances in the energy metabolism of the cell or to increased cell death. Furthermore, baseline g- and ß-secretase activity was assessed since these enzymes represent promising therapeutic targets to slow or halt the disease process. As expected, ß-secretase activity was significantly elevated in all APPsw cell lines. This might be due to the proximity of the Swedish double mutation next to the N-terminus of the Aß sequence. Interestingly, g-secretase activity was similarly increased in PC12 APPsw cells. In addition, the toxicity of different Aß species was investigated in SY5Y and PC12 cells with regard to their effect on cellular viability mirrored by mitochondrial activity using MTT assay. Here, it turned out that not monomers, but already dimers are neurotoxic correlates. Fibrillar Aß species showed the highest toxicity. In the next step, SY5Y cells forming endogenous, dimeric APP and Aß were investigated. In accordance with previous findings, these cells showed a decreased MTT reduction potential in comparison to APPwt and control SY5Y cells reflecting a decrease of cellular viability. The impaired energy metabolism of the cells was even more drastically mirrored by reduced baseline ATP levels. In the second part of this thesis, the expression and intracellular distribution of Bcl-2 family proteins and pro-apoptotic mitochondrial factors under baseline conditions and during oxidative stress were analyzed in the APPwt and APPsw bearing cells. The most prominent finding was the reduction of expression levels of the anti-apoptotic factor Bcl-xL in the cytosolic fractions of APPwt and APPsw PC12 cells. This might indicate that a lack of anti-apoptotic factors or their altered intracellular distribution, rather than an increase in caspase-dependent pro-apoptotic factors, could be responsible for the increased vulnerability of APPwt- and APPsw-transfected PC12 cells against oxidative stress. Since total Bcl-xL expression was unaffected in PC12 cells, in contrast to APPwt and APPsw-expressing SY5Y and HEK cells revealing significantly decreased Bcl-xL expression levels. Thus, alterations in Bcl-xL distribution seem to be an early event in the disease process. Increasing Bcl-xL expression might potentially be one promising strategy for AD modification. PC12 and HEK cells bearing APPsw or APPwt were treated with the potent g-secretase inhibitor DAPT. Of note, DAPT did not only efficiently block Aß production, but additionally led to an elevation of the MTT reduction potential, reflecting an increase in cellular viability. As another disease-modifying strategy, several efforts are undertaken to ameliorate AD-relevant symptoms by the treatment with nerve growth factor (NGF). Generally, it is known that substituted pyrimidines have modest growth-promoting effects. Here, KP544, a novel substituted pyrimidine, was characterised. This drug increased MTT reduction potential in terminally differentiated and undifferentiated PC12 cells. Furthermore, treatment with KP544 led to a reduction in Aß1-40 secretion. Thus, one may conclude that the target of KP544, GSK-3ß, represents a connecting link between the two main pathological hallmarks of AD and might thus be a very promising therapeutic target for AD.
Purpose: The Action Plan for Medication Safety by the German Federal Ministry of Health introduced a standardized medication plan (MP), a printable document for the patient. The practical handling needs to be tested before the nationwide implementation in Germany. Therefore, the aims of our study were 1) to develop an instrument to evaluate the usage of the standardized MP, 2) to assess if patients can locate, and 3) understand important information. Moreover, we explored patients’ opinion and suggestions regarding the standardized MP template.
Patients and methods: We conducted a cross-sectional study to evaluate the practical handling of the standardized MP. We interviewed 40 adult patients in seven community pharmacies in Germany, who took at least five medicines regularly and gave their written informed consent. The interview consisted of questions regarding finding and understanding information provided on a mock-up MP, patients’ opinion and the execution of the information on the MP by filling pill boxes. We eventually developed a new evaluation method to quantify the practical handling of the MP by rating the pill boxes filled by the patients.
Results: Overall, the participants rated the MP positively. Thirty-nine (98%) participants found important information on a mock-up standardized MP. Patients were questioned to identify if they understood information on medical intake as it relates to meals. In particular, they were questioned about medicine intake "1 hour before a meal", which 98% (n=39) interpreted correctly, and "during a meal", which 100% (n=40) interpreted correctly. The less precise advice of "before a meal" was interpreted correctly by 73% (n=29), and only 15% (n=6) correctly interpreted the term "after the meal". The evaluation of the filled pill boxes resulted in the "Evaluation Tool to test the handling of the Medication Plan" (ET-MP) – a weighted scoring system.
Conclusion: The standardized MP is clearly arranged, and patients are able to find important information. The findings of this study resulted in minor but important revisions of the standardized MP template. The developed evaluation tool ET-MP may serve as an objective instrument to assess patients’ ability to transfer written information on the MP into practical handling of medicines.
In an ongoing clinical phase I/II study, 16 pediatric patients suffering from high risk leukemia/tumors received highly purified donor natural killer (NK) cell immunotherapy (NK-DLI) at day (+3) +40 and +100 post haploidentical stem cell transplantation. However, literature about the influence of NK-DLI on recipient's immune system is scarce. Here we present concomitant results of a noninvasive in vivo monitoring approach of recipient's peripheral blood (PB) cells after transfer of either unstimulated (NK-DLI(unstim)) or IL-2 (1000 U/ml, 9–14 days) activated NK cells (NK-DLI(IL-2 stim)) along with their ex vivo secreted cytokine/chemokines. We performed phenotypical and functional characterizations of the NK-DLIs, detailed flow cytometric analyses of various PB cells and comprehensive cytokine/chemokine arrays before and after NK-DLI. Patients of both groups were comparable with regard to remission status, immune reconstitution, donor chimerism, KIR mismatching, stem cell and NK-DLI dose. Only after NK-DLI(IL-2 stim) was a rapid, almost complete loss of CD56(bright)CD16(dim/−) immune regulatory and CD56(dim)CD16(+) cytotoxic NK cells, monocytes, dendritic cells and eosinophils from PB circulation seen 10 min after infusion, while neutrophils significantly increased. The reduction of NK cells was due to both, a decrease in patients' own CD69(−) NCR(low)CD62L(+) NK cells as well as to a diminishing of the transferred cells from the NK-DLI(IL-2 stim) with the CD56(bright)CD16(+/−)CD69(+)NCR(high)CD62L(−) phenotype. All cell counts recovered within the next 24 h. Transfer of NK-DLI(IL-2 stim) translated into significantly increased levels of various cytokines/chemokines (i.e. IFN-γ, IL-6, MIP-1β) in patients' PB. Those remained stable for at least 1 h, presumably leading to endothelial activation, leukocyte adhesion and/or extravasation. In contrast, NK-DLI(unstim) did not cause any of the observed effects. In conclusion, we assume that the adoptive transfer of NK-DLI(IL-2 stim) under the influence of ex vivo and in vivo secreted cytokines/chemokines may promote NK cell trafficking and therefore might enhance efficacy of immunotherapy.
Consequences of altered eicosanoid patterns for nociceptive processing in mPGES-1-deficient mice
(2007)
Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2)-dependent prostaglandin (PG) E2 synthesis in the spinal cord plays a major role in the development of inflammatory hyperalgesia and allodynia. Microsomal PGE2 synthase-1 (mPGES-1) isomerizes COX-2-derived PGH2 to PGE2. Here, we evaluated the effect of mPGES-1-deficiency on the noci-ceptive behavior in various models of nociception that depend on PGE2 synthesis. Surprisingly, in the COX-2-dependent zymosan-evoked hyperalgesia model, the nociceptive behavior was not reduced in mPGES-1-deficient mice despite a marked decrease of the spinal PGE2 synthesis. Similarly, the nociceptive behavior was unaltered in mPGES-1-deficient mice in the formalin test. Importantly, spinal cords and primary spinal cord cells derived from mPGES-1-deficient mice showed a redirection of the PGE2 synthesis to PGD2, PGF2α and 6-keto-PGF1α (stable metabolite of PGI2). Since the latter prostaglandins serve also as mediators of noci-ception they may compensate the loss of PGE2 synthesis in mPGES-1-deficient mice.
Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) plays an important role in bone development and metabolism. To interfere therapeutically in the PGE2 pathway, however, knowledge about the involved enzymes (cyclooxygenases) and receptors (PGE2 receptors) is essential. We therefore examined the production of PGE2 in cultured growth plate chondrocytes in vitro and the effects of exogenously added PGE2 on cell proliferation. Furthermore, we analysed the expression and spatial distribution of cyclooxygenase (COX)-1 and COX-2 and PGE2 receptor types EP1, EP2, EP3 and EP4 in the growth plate in situ and in vitro. PGE2 synthesis was determined by mass spectrometry, cell proliferation by DNA [3H]-thymidine incorporation, mRNA expression of cyclooxygenases and EP receptors by RT-PCR on cultured cells and in homogenized growth plates. To determine cellular expression, frozen sections of rat tibial growth plate and primary chondrocyte cultures were stained using immunohistochemistry with polyclonal antibodies directed towards COX-1, COX-2, EP1, EP2, EP3, and EP4. Cultured growth plate chondrocytes transiently secreted PGE2 into the culture medium. Although both enzymes were expressed in chondrocytes in vitro and in vivo, it appears that mainly COX-2 contributed to PGE2-dependent proliferation. Exogenously added PGE2 stimulated DNA synthesis in a dose-dependent fashion and gave a bell-shaped curve with a maximum at 10-8 M. The EP1/EP3 specific agonist sulprostone and the EP1-selective agonist ONO-D1-004 increased DNA synthesis. The effect of PGE2 was suppressed by ONO-8711. The expression of EP1, EP2, EP3, and EP4 receptors in situ and in vitro was observed; EP2 was homogenously expressed in all zones of the growth plate in situ, whereas EP1 expression was inhomogenous, with spared cells in the reserve zone. In cultured cells these four receptors were expressed in a subset of cells only. The most intense staining for the EP1 receptor was found in polygonal cells surrounded by matrix. Expression of receptor protein for EP3 and EP4 was observed also in rat growth plates. In cultured chrondrocytes, however, only weak expression of EP3 and EP4 receptor was detected. We suggest that in growth plate chondrocytes, COX-2 is responsible for PGE2 release, which stimulates cell proliferation via the EP1 receptor.
Background: Treatment complexity rises in line with the number of drugs, single doses, and administration methods, thereby threatening patient adherence. Patients with multimorbidity often need flexible, individualised treatment regimens, but alterations during the course of treatment may further increase complexity. The objective of our study was to explore medication changes in older patients with multimorbidity and polypharmacy in general practice.
Methods: We retrospectively analysed data from the cluster-randomised PRIMUM trial (PRIoritisation of MUltimedication in Multimorbidity) conducted in 72 general practices. We developed an algorithm for active pharmaceutical ingredients (API), strength, dosage, and administration method to assess changes in physician-reported medication data during two intervals (baseline to six-months: ∆1; six- to nine-months: ∆2), analysed them descriptively at prescription and patient levels, and checked for intervention effects.
Results: Of 502 patients (median age 72 years, 52% female), 464 completed the study. Changes occurred in 98.6% of patients (changes were 19% more likely in the intervention group): API changes during ∆1 and ∆2 occurred in 414 (82.5%) and 338 (67.3%) of patients, dosage alterations in 372 (74.1%) and 296 (59.2%), and changes in API strength in 158 (31.5%) and 138 (27.5%) respectively. Administration method changed in 79 (16%) of patients in both ∆1 and ∆2. Simvastatin, metformin and aspirin were most frequently subject to alterations.
Conclusion: Medication regimens in older patients with multimorbidity and polypharmacy changed frequently. These are mostly due to discontinuations and dosage alterations, followed by additions and restarts. These findings cast doubt on the effectiveness of cross-sectional assessments of medication and support longitudinal assessments where possible.
Trial registration: 1. Prospective registration: Trial registration number: NCT01171339; Name of registry: ClinicalTrials.gov; Date of registration: July 27, 2010; Date of enrolment of the first participant to the trial: August 12, 2010.
2. Peer reviewed trial registration: Trial registration number: ISRCTN99526053; Name of registry: Controlled Trials; Date of registration: August 31, 2010; Date of enrolment of the first participant to the trial: August 12, 2010.
The prevalence of food allergies has increased in the westernized countries during the past decades. Clinical manifestations of food allergies involve the skin (e.g. atopic dermatitis), the respiratory tract (e.g. rhinitis, and asthma), the ocular area (e.g. conjunctivitis), the gastrointestinal tract (e.g. food-protein-induced enterocolitis syndrome, food-induced proctocolitis, and eosinophilic gastroenteropathies), and the cardiovascular system (e.g. anaphylaxis). A curative treatment of these diseases has not been established yet. Oral immunotherapy (OIT) has gained attention as a potential therapy for food allergies. Continuous feeding of allergenic diet applied in the model described here mirrors to a certain extent an OIT treatment. It might be therefore useful to investigate efficacy and safety of OIT pre-clinically.
Mouse models have been widely used to analyse novel treatment approaches. Unfortunately, most of them have focussed on IgE-mediated hyperreactivity. Only a limited number of mouse models presenting mixed IgE- and non-IgE-mediated gastrointestinal symptoms and inflammation upon allergen-challenge are available. To study the mechanisms underlying the induction of food-induced gastrointestinal inflammation and subsequent oral tolerance induction, a mouse model of food-induced gastrointestinal allergy was established. BALB/c mice were sensitised with Ovalbumin (OVA) plus ALUM and subsequently challenged by feeding a diet containing egg white (EW diet). During the first seven days on EW diet, OVA-sensitised mice (OVA/ALUM EW mice) developed gastrointestinal symptoms (e.g. weight loss, ruffed fur, soft stool and less mobility) and inflammation in the small intestines accompanied by a strong induction of OVA-specific IgE antibodies and mouse mast cell protease-1 (mMCP-1). Proliferation of CD4+ T cells from spleen of OVA/ALUM EW mice was reduced compared controls. The result indicated that feeding EW diet induced T cell tolerance systemically. In contrast, CD4+ T cells isolated from MLN of OVA/ALUM EW mice showed stronger proliferation upon OVA stimulation in vitro than mice OVA-sensitised but fed a conventional diet, indicating that tolerance was not induced by short-term EW diet. Histological analysis of the small intestinal tissue of OVA/ALUM EW mice revealed strong inflammation present in the duodenum, jejunum and ileum at this time point.
Interestingly, the observed symptoms in OVA/ALUM EW mice resolved spontaneously after 7 days on EW diet, if the feeding was continued. In the next steps the CD4+ T cell-mediated immune response after 28 days continuous EW diet was assessed and revealed that tolerance was induced systemically as well as locally. This was shown by reduced proliferation and cytokine secretion of CD4+ T cells from MLN of OVA/ALUM EW mice after long-term EW diet. However, the inflammation in the jejunum was aggravated instead of resolved at this time point of allergenic diet. Our results suggest that application of OIT in food-allergic patients with gastrointestinal inflammation may need to be reconsidered, since continuous administration of allergenic food may aggravate inflammation in the local tissue. Interestingly, only the jejunum was affected by a worsened condition, whereas duodenum and ileum resolved inflammation. In accordance to the observed jejunal inflammation mMCP-1 levels in the sera were not changed. Allergen-specific IgE levels did not reach baseline level after long-term EW diet, although they were reduced compared to levels in mice after 7 days on EW diet. This result suggests that residual OVA-specific IgE antibodies would promote the jejunal inflammation by sustained activation of mast cells. Furthermore, our results suggest that IL-4 produced by activated Th2 cells could be an effector molecule to induce intestinal inflammation.
The second part of this thesis was aimed at verifying the hypothesis that IgE-mediated mast cell activation is a major effector mechanism in induction of chronic inflammation induced by long-term EW diet. For that mice deficient for FcεRI, a high affinity IgE receptor, were used. These mice were sensitised with OVA and fed EW diet as described for WT mice. Although FcεRI-deficient mice showed an intact Th2 immunity with IgE production, weight loss in the receptor-deficient mice was moderately induced by EW diet compared to WT mice, suggesting that this clinical symptom during the acute phase of allergic response is associated with IgE-mediated mechanisms. Surprisingly, the deficient mice presented comparable intestinal inflammation on day seven of EW diet as WT mice did. However, if EW diet was continued, recovery of intestinal inflammation was observed in FcεRI-deficient mice in contrast to WT mice. These results suggest that the induction of intestinal inflammation is not IgE-dependent. Nevertheless, this does not rule out a potential role of mast cells in the inflammation, because of their IgE-independent activation pathways. It also suggests the involvement of T cell-mediated mechanisms during induction of jejunal inflammation. Interestingly, the aggravated inflammation seen after long-term EW diet in WT mice seems to be IgE-dependent, considering that it was not observed in FcεRI-deficient mice. The elevated number of mast cells in the intestine of WT mice further led to a hypothesis that their continuous activation might be responsible for the chronification of allergic inflammation observed after long-term EW diet. In the context of OIT it further implies that IgE might be a poor prognostic factor for recovery of intestinal inflammation during and after an OIT treatment. In the third part of this thesis regulatory mechanisms employed by the immune system were analysed. Initial results from CD4+ T cells isolated from MLN from OVA/ALUM EW mice showed elevated IL-10 levels in their supernatants after short-term EW diet. IL-10-deficient mice were used to analyse the effect of this immunosuppressive cytokine in the mouse model presented here. However, IL-10-deficient mice tend to develop a strong Th1-dominated immune response. Nevertheless, an accelerated weight loss and slight inflammation of the jejunum was observed after short-term EW diet. Analysis of OVA-specific proliferation and cytokine production CD4+ T cells from Spleen and MLN of IL-10-deficient mice on EW diet suggested that systemic as well as local tolerance was induced after short-term and long-term EW diet feeding, respectively. The result suggests that IL-10 is dispensable for induction of T cell tolerance in our mouse model.
However, the presence of functionally active Tregs was observed during this study in WT mice fed short-term EW diet, suggesting that Tregs might have an important role in regulating the systemic or local immune response. T cell deletion as an alternative immune regulatory mechanism was also observed. Additionally, the efficacy of continuous EW diet (mirroring to a certain extent an OIT treatment) in induction of permanent tolerance was assessed. In OVA-sensitised WT mice continuous allergenic diet was stopped after resolution of clinical symptoms and reintroduced after a defined period on conventional diet. Evaluating the weight development showed that reintroduction of EW diet induced weight loss again, but not as pronounced as seen after short-term EW diet. Also the CD4+ T cell-mediated response was elevated again upon allergen stimulation in vitro. The results suggested that permanent tolerance was not induced in the chosen feeding regime.
The mouse model established and analysed here was used to investigate inflammatory and regulatory mechanisms underlying food-induced gastrointestinal allergy. It presents clinical symptoms and intestinal inflammation (Burggraf et al., 2011). This model is easy to be reproduced in different laboratories, and is useful for testing novel therapy approaches (Schülke et al., 2011; Bohnen et al., 2013). It further provides an opportunity to investigate basic mechanisms underlying OIT. This therapy approach is currently extensively investigated and our mouse model would help to understand the therapeutic mechanism of OIT.
Lipid mediators have been referred as bioactive lipids, whose change in lipid levels resulted in functional or pathophysiological consequences. They are in the focus of biological research, nevertheless this is a late recognition due to the many difficulties of working with bioactive lipids due to their properties: hydrophobic, unstable and they occur in only in small quantities. Liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry have facilitated the work with them. Especially in this field, cardiovascular diseases and inflammatory mediated diseases and cancer are pathophysiological events where LMs are deregulated. Additionally, if the modulation of one LM pathway is not sufficient to overcome a disease, the combination of targeting two or more pathways could be effective. Needless to say, lipid signaling cascades are complicated pathways and possible shunting into other pathways when inhibiting or genetically deleting enzymes should be taken into consideration.
The first part of this work has focused on enzymes that metabolize eicosanoids, like mPGES-1 and 5-LO. mPGES-1 is an important enzyme metabolizing PGH2 and one of the key players of the AA cascade. Its product, PGE2 plays an important role in different inflammatory processes. Inhibition of the mPGES-1 might be a promising step to circumvent COX dependent side effects of NSAIDs. The class of quinazoline compounds around the lead structure FR20 has been investigated on isolated human and murine enzyme, in HeLa cells and in different human whole blood (HWB) settings to establish the possible effects of these compounds on eicosanoid profiling. Novel compounds with inhibitory activities in the submicromolar range (IC50: 0.13 µM - 0.37 µM on isolated enzyme) were obtained which were also effective in cells and HWB. Furthermore, pharmacological profiling of toxicity and lipid screening with LC/MS-MS revealed that compounds also reduce PGE2 levels in intact cells and whole blood; they do not impair cell viability but lack the ability to inhibit the murine mPGES-1 enzyme. This problem could be overcome by means of chemical synthesis varying the scaffold (quinoline, quinazoline) or introducing biosteric replacement in the phenyl moieties.
5-LO is a relevant enzyme that plays an important role in eicosanoid signaling in particular in leukotriene biosynthesis. Leukotrienes are involved in asthma, allergic rhinitis, glomerulonephritis, rheumatoid arthritis, sepsis, cancer and atherosclerosis. Moreover, genetic variants in the genes of the 5-LO pathway have been associated with the risk of development of acute myocardial infarction and stroke. Eicosanoids are increased in infectious exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). They are also elevated in the airways of stable COPD patients compared to healthy subjects. Therefore, 5-LO has attired the scientific community as a possible therapeutic target to treat the several disease conditions listed before. In this study an extensive evaluation of imidazo[1,2-a]pyridines as a suitable lead structure for novel 5-LO targeting compounds was presented Within the three publications, 5-LO inhibitory activity of synthesized compounds was investigated in intact PMNL, a cell-free assay, in human whole blood and rodent cells to both elucidate structure-activity relationships and compounds were in vitro pharmacological evaluated. Chemical modifications for lead optimization via straight forward synthesis were used to combine small polar groups (hydroxy, and methoxy groups) which led to a suitable candidate with desired in vitro pharmacokinetic profile in terms of solubility and intrinsic clearance without showing any cytotoxicity. More than 70 imidazo[1,2-a]pyridine derivatives have been synthesized, resulting in more than 50 active compounds. Although it was not possible to introduce a solubility group without impairing the 5-LO inhibitory activity, combination of small polar groups lead to a more favorable solubility and in vitro metabolic stability. Overall, the development of 5-LO inhibitors with high efficacy and selectivity in vivo will provide a possible treatment for patients having one of the diseases where leukotriene biosynthesis plays an important role.
Other types of 5-LO inhibitors have been synthesized during this work, NO-NSAIDs can be postulated as novel 5-LO inhibitors that could circumvent the undesired side-effects of inhibiting COX isoforms (ulcer perforation, gastrointestinal bleeding and in some cases death). It is suggested that NO group is released in situ or after compounds are metabolized. NO-NSAIDs maintain the same anti-inflammatory properties by inhibiting 5-LO in clinical relevant concentrations. NO-NSAIDs are currently under clinical trial for the treatment of diseases where inflammation plays an important role. Synthesis of NO-NSAIDs is straightforward and can be applied for most NSAIDs recently published. Among them, the most promising candidate is NO-sulindac that was able to inhibit 5-LO product formation in intact PMNL, purified 5-LO and HWB in micromolar concentration. Additional experiments regarding their mechanism are currently being performed.
The present study could show that dual inhibitors are an interesting approach that is practicable. It has been used in the recent years to overcome side-effects and diseases concerning more pathophysiological conditions. MetS is an example of a conjunction of symptoms: hyperglycemia, hypertriglyceridemia, hypertension and obesity. Due to its complex nature, the current treatment strategies of MetS require multiple pharmacological compounds regulating lipid and glucose homeostasis as well as blood pressure and coagulation. This study describes the first synthesis of dual sEH/PPAR modulators as potential agents for treatment of MetS. Following a combinatorial approach, an acidic head group known as a pharmacophore important for PPARα/γ dual agonistic activity was combined with different hydrophobic urea derivatives in order to introduce an epoxide mimetic (sEH pharmacophore). The resulting compounds yielded high inhibition of sEH and different patterns of PPAR agonistic activity. This study demonstrates that the pharmacophores of PPAR agonists and sEH inhibitors can be easily combined, resulting in a simplified blueprint of a dual sEH/PPAR modulator. Further in vivo pharmacological evaluation studies are needed in order to evaluate, which pattern of PPAR activation shows the most promising profile for treatment of metabolic syndrome.
Another example of dual pharmacology has been presented in this work. Natural products derived compounds were able to target sEH and exhibit promising antiproliferative properties. The principle of addressing multiple targets by natural products can be transferred to synthetic multi-target ligands. In conclusion, several (E)-styryl-1H-benzo[d]imidazoles were synthesized and evaluated on recombinant sEH after an initial hit (IPS) that lead to potent sEH inhibitors exhibiting antiproliferative activities. Following the natural product-inspired design, the desired biological activity from a bacterial secondary metabolite has been enhanced and transferred to a synthetic compound series. The resulting compounds were accessible via an easy synthetic route and offered a possibility to investigate the structure-activity relationships. The natural product inspired drug design extends the valuable role of natural products as drugs and drug precursors to templates for fully synthetic bioactive molecules. Simplification of natural products by means of chemical synthesis could lead to an interesting field in the treatment of cancer.
Affinity chromatography has been used to unravel unknown- and off-target effects which either contribute to the biological effect of the inhibitor or that counteract or lead to undesired side-effects. During this PhD work, two main projects related to this technique have been established. In the first one, related to an imidazo[1,2-a]pyridine inhibitor (EP6), it has been shown that epoxide-sepharose is a reliable material in order to couple compounds bearing an alcohol. Coupling of an analogue of EP6 to the sepharose has been accomplished and affinity towards 5-LO was demonstrated. The challenging step is to discern from unspecific protein binders and analysis via SDS-PAGE separation and mass spectrometry. Further experiments using other cell types or improving SDS-PAGE analysis (e.g. 2D gel analysis) should be useful to unravel EP6 off-target effect. During the second project related to off-target effects of celecoxib and DMC, the main problem was the coupling of the functional group to the sepharose. Affinity towards COX-2 could not be demonstrated pointing out the inefficient coupling method. Higher pH values during coupling reaction should be tested in further experiments. Nevertheless, affinity chromatography is a useful technique to unravel cellular mechanisms.
Sphingolipid metabolism is also a recent area that attired the attention of cancer researchers, due to their important roles in cell proliferation and apoptosis. Ceramide metabolism inhibitors were synthesized and evaluated on different assay systems in order to assess their efficacy on several cancer lines. Remarkably, 2,2-dimethyl-1,3-dioxolan-4-yl)methanamine (32) was a useful scaffold to mimic the sphingoid base. This key intermediate was used to produce ceramide analogues that could enter the cell and target apoptosis machinery. EB143 (38) increased ceramide levels in an in vitro ceramide synthase assay in a dose-response manner meaning that ceramide synthase was not inhibited but the ceramide de novo synthesis was activated. This effect was due to the fact that EB143 is a cytotoxic compound with an interesting antiproliferative profile. Further chemical modifications should be carried out to modulate this effect.
COX and LO inhibitors are cancer-preventive not only by inhibiting specific antiapoptotic AA metabolites but also by facilitating accumulation of AA which promotes neutral SMase activity and increases the proapoptotic ceramide. Several 5-LO inhibitors have been evaluated on several cancer lines and sphingolipid levels were measured in order to obtain a relationship. A549, Capan-2 and MCF-7 cells line were incubated with synthetic 5-LO inhibitors and zileuton. Compounds were cytotoxic to all cancer cell lines except from A549. Needless to say, zileuton did not exhibit a cytotoxic profile. Synthetic 5-LO inhibitors were able to modify ceramide levels but were useless when coincubating with sphingolipid metabolism inhibitors (myoricin, amitryptiline etc.) and inconsistent results were obtained. On the contrary, zileuton selectively increased Cer-C16 levels and in less extend Cer-C24:1. When using a SPT inhibitor (myoricin) alone was able to reduce C24:1 and Cer-C16:0 levels below the control, a similar effect occurred when incubation the cells with zileuton and myriocin. Interestingly, treatment of zileuton together with either amitryptiline or desipramine led to a decrease in Cer-C24:1 and levels Cer-C16:0 but the inhibition was not complete indicating that probably the de novo pathway has an important role. Further investigations on mRNA level should be carried out in order to discern which CerS is activated.
The main objective of the present thesis was the synthesis of lipid signaling modulators and their evaluation in vitro as therapeutic strategy to overcome pathophysiological conditions (cancer, metabolic syndrome, etc). It has been accomplished on many relevant targets like 5-LO, mPGES-1, sEH and PPAR and these lipid signaling modulators could be used in the treatment of diseases conditions where lipid mediators play an important role.
HIV vaccine preclinical testing is difficult because HIV’s only relevant hosts are humans and no correlates of protection are known. To this end, we are working on the humanization of different mouse strains with human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) as well as human hematopoietic stem cells (HSC) to generate a useful small animal model.
We generated immune deficient mice (NOD Scid IL2gc -/- /NOD Rag1-/- IL2gc -/-) expressing human MHC class II (HLA-DQ8) on a mouse class II deficient background (Ab-/-). Here, the human HLA-DQ8 should interact with the matching T cell receptors of transferred matching human PBMCs and therefore could support the functionality of the transferred human CD4+ cells in the mice.
Mice that were adoptively transferred with human HLA-DQ8 PBMCs only showed engraftment of CD3+ T cells. Surprisingly, the presence of HLA class II did not significantly change the repopulation rates in the mice. Also, the presence of HLA class II did not advance B cell engraftment, such that humoral immune responses were undetectable. However, the overall survival of DQ8-expressing mice was significantly prolonged, compared to mice expressing mouse MHC class II molecules, and correlated with an increased time span until onset of GvHD.
To avoid GVHD and to increase and maintain the level of human cell reconstitution over a long period of time, the same mouse strains were reconstituted with human HSC. Compared to PBMC-repopulated mice, HSC-reconstituted mice develop almost all subpopulations of the human immune system detectable at week 12 after HSC transfer. These mice developed adaptive immune responses after Tetanus Toxoide (TT) immunizations. In addition, we are testing the susceptibility of these humanized mice to different HIV strains with a detailed look at immune responses.
Role in routing to the plasma membrane of the L 0 domain of the multidrug resistance protein MRP1
(2003)
Die mehrfache Chemotherapieresistenz (Multidrug Resistance) beruht auf vermehrtem Transport von Xenobiotika aus der Zelle, was zu einer dramatischen Verringerung der intrazellulären Konzentration von chemotherapeutischen Substanzen führt. Dieser Effekt wird von transmembranen Transporter-Proteinen der ABC-Familie verursacht. Zu dieser Familie gehört MRP1, die eine große Vielfalt an Substraten transportieren kann. MRP1 ist ein 190 kDa Glykoprotein mit einer vermuteten Topologie, die zusätzlich zum typischen P-gp ähnlichen Kern (Delta MRP1) eine amino-proximale transmembrane Domäne aufweist, die aus fünf transmembranen Alpha-Helices besteht. Sie ist durch einen cytoplasmatischen Verbindungs-Loop (L0) mit Delta MRP1 verbunden. Wenn MRP1 in polarisierten Zellen exprimiert wird, wird es zu der basolateralen Membran geleitet. In der vorliegenden Arbeit sollte nun die Funktion des amino-terminalen Bereichs von MRP1, der aus der ersten transmembranen Domäne TMD0 und dem cytoplasmischen Verbindungs-Loop L0 besteht, durch Expression und Koexpression von diversen MRP1 Mutanten in polarisierten MDCKII Zellen untersucht werden. Es wurde gezeigt, dass in der L0 Region eine amphipathische Helix vorhanden ist, die für die Funktionalität der MRP1 notwendig ist; dass das isolierte L0-Peptid in der Lage ist, sich mit Delta MRPI zu assoziieren (dadurch erlangt das Protein wieder seine Funktion und lokalisiert sich in der basolateralen Membrane); dass TMD0L0 sich teilweise in der basolaterale Membrane befindet und dass seine Anwesenheit genügt, um die Glycosilierung (Fig. 4.17 in der Dissertation) und die Lokalisierung in der basolateralen Membrane des Delta MRP1 zu ermöglichen (Fig. 4.18 in der Dissertation); dass die Koexpression der zwei komplementären Fragmente eine wild-type-ähnliche Transportaktivität ergibt (Fig. 4.19 in der Dissertation) und dass die beiden Fragmente interagieren (Fig. 4.21 in der Dissertation). Es wurde ausserdem ein chimerisches Protein hergestellt, welches aus TMD0 von MRP1 und L0 von MRP2 besteht und in MDCKII und MDCKII-Delta MRP1 Zellen exprimiert. Es wurde festgestellt, dass das unvollständig glycosiliert ist (Fig. 4.24 in der Dissertation) und dass es sich im endoplasmatischen Reticulum lokalisiert (Fig. 425 in der Dissertation).
Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is characterized by uncontrolled proliferation and accumulation of immature myeloblasts, which impair normal hematopoiesis. While this definition categorizes the disease into a distinctive group, the large number of different genetic and epigenetic alterations actually suggests that AML is not a single disease, but a plethora of malignancies. Still, most AML patients are not treated with targeted medication but rather by uniform approaches such as chemotherapy. The identification of novel treatment options likely requires the identification of cancer cell vulnerabilities that take into account the different genetic and epigenetic make-up of the individual tumors. Here we show that STK3 depletion by knock-down, knock-out or chemical inhibition results in apoptotic cells death in some but not all AML cell lines and primary cells tested. This effect is mediated by a premature activation of cyclin dependent kinase 1 (CDK1) in presence of elevated cyclin B1 levels. The anti-leukemic effects seen in both bulk and progenitor AML cells suggests that STK3 might be a promising target in a subset of AML patients.
Haematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) are regarded as the prime target for gene therapy of inherited and acquired disorders of the blood system, e.g. X-linked chronic granulomatous disease (X-CGD). The major reason for this is that HSCs posses the ability to self renew as well as the potential to differentiate into all lineage-specific cell types. However, the need to reach and to maintain sufficient therapeutic levels of genetically modified stem cells and their progeny after gene delivery still presents major challenges for current HSC gene therapy approaches. In particular, one of the main limitations for most genetic defects is the lack of a selective growth advantage of gene-modified cells after engraftment. In vitro and in vivo methods have been developed that focus on either positive or negative selection of HSCs. An artificial selection advantage can be conferred to transduced HSCs by incorporating a selection marker in addition to the therapeutic transgene. In the present study, two novel strategies for positive selection of murine gp91phox gene-modified haematopoietic stem cells were developed and tested, bearing in mind that with selective growth advantage, the possibility of uncontrolled proliferation arises. The first strategy to be investigated was based on the homeobox transcription factor HOXB4, which plays an important role in the control of haematopoietic stem cell proliferation and differentiation. Overexpression of a retroviral bicistronic construct containing the therapeutic gene gp91phox and HOXB4 in murine primary bone marrow cells led to a significant 3–4-fold expansion of transduced cells ex vivo. The numbers of transgene-expressing cells increased 2–3-fold after 2 weeks cultivation under cytokine stimulation. Furthermore, the clonogenic progenitor cell assay (CFU assay) demonstrated that the number of colony-forming cells had increased to levels 2-fold higher than those of mock-transduced cells after 1 week of culture, thereby augmenting the presence of a significant number of stem/progenitor cells in the selected cell population. However, in our experiments, HOXB4-overexpressing murine HSCs did not show any repopulating advantage in transplanted recipient mice over control construct-transduced HSCs. These results indicate that selective expansion of gp91phox gene-modified HSCs can be induced by the HOXB4 transcription factor ex vivo but not in vivo. This is possibly dependent on HOXB4 expression levels, which are too low in vivo to achieve selection. The second strategy made use of a chemically inducible dimerizer system consisting of the therapeutic gene gp91phox and a fusion protein, containing sequences from a growth factor receptor signalling domain (epidermal growth factor receptor, EGFR, or prolactin receptor, PrlR) and the drug binding protein FKBP12, as the selection cassette. This strategy aimed to allow inducible selection that could be easily switched off. The activity of these fusion proteins is controlled through the small molecular dimerizer AP20187. Transduction of BaF/3 cells with lentiviral vectors expressing the EGFR construct induced proliferation and led to complete selection within 18 days (99%). However, removing AP20187 could not turn off proliferation. This construct is, therefore, not suitable as a selection cassette for the expansion of gene-modified HSCs due to its oncogenic potential. Transduction of the construct containing the intracellular domain of PrlR caused significant selective expansion of AP20187-treated BaF/3 cells. Following expression in cells, the fusion protein, which lacks membrane-anchoring sequences, mainly localized to the cytoplasm. Evidence was found to indicate that activated STAT5 might be responsible for this effect. Upon expression of the prolactin construct, phosphorylation of STAT5 and its DNA-binding activity to a ß-casein promoter sequence was strongly increased. Importantly, the induced proliferation was reversible after removal of AP20187. Transduced Sca1+ bone marrow cells obtained from C57BL/6-CD45.1 mice could be expanded about 20–100-fold ex vivo in the presence of AP20187 and mSCF without losing progenitor cell features and the capability to contribute to all lineages of the haematopoietic system. To exclude oncogenic outgrowth of one single clone, the polyclonality of selected cells was proven by ligation-mediated PCR (LM-PCR) analysis. In mouse transplantation experiments, ex vivo-expanded cells repopulated the bone marrow of lethally irradiated mice suggesting that the ex vivo expansion took place at the level of haematopoietic stem and/or progenitor cells. Genomic gp91phox sequences were detected in the bone marrow, spleen and peripheral blood cells of transplanted animals, indicating that gp91phox-containing cells most likely contributed to the reconstitution of haematopoiesis in these mice.
Gene transfer vectors such as lentiviral vectors offer versatile possibilities to express transgenic antigens for vaccination purposes. However, viral vaccines leading to broad transduction and transgene expression in vivo, are undesirable. Therefore, strategies capable of directing gene transfer only to professional antigen-presenting cells would increase the specific activity and safety of genetic vaccines. A lentiviral vector pseudotype specific for murine major histocompatibilty complex class II (LV-MHCII) was recently developed and the present study aims to characterize the in vivo biodistribution profile and immunization potential of this vector in mice. Whereas the systemic administration of a vector pseudotyped with a ubiquitously-interacting envelope led to prominent detection of vector copies in the liver of animals, the injection of an equivalent amount of LV-MHCII resulted in a more specific biodistribution of vector and transgene. Copies of LV-MHCII were found only in secondary lymphoid organs, essentially in CD11c+ dendritic cells expressing the transgene whereas B cells were not efficiently targeted in vivo, contrary to expectations based on in vitro testing. Upon a single injection of LV-MHCII, naive mice mounted specific effector CD4 and CD8 T cell responses against the intracelllular transgene product with the generation of Th1 cytokines, development of in vivo cytotoxic activity and establishment of T cell immune memory. The targeting of dendritic cells by recombinant viral vaccines must therefore be assessed in vivo but this strategy is feasible, effective for immunization and cross-presentation and constitutes a potentially safe alternative to limit off-target gene expression in gene-based vaccination strategies with integrative vectors.
Die Beschäftigung mit Muskarinrezeptoren reicht bis in das vergangene Jahrhundert zurück als, in Folge der verschiedenen Wirkungen des Neurotransmitters Acetylcholin, einerseits Nikotin- und andererseits Muskarinrezeptoren sowie deren Subtypen entdeckt und charakterisiert werden konnten. Aufgrund der weiten Verbreitung von Muskarinrezeptoren innerhalb des zentralen und peripheren Nervensystems sowie in entsprechend innervierten Organen sind diese nach wie vor als Target für bestimmte klinische Indikationen von großem Interesse. Besonders im Bereich der chronisch obstruktiven Atemwegserkrankungen (COPD) sind Bronchodilatoren Mittel der Wahl. Obwohl die derzeitige Behandlungsstrategie im wesentlichen auf dem Einsatz des unselektiven muskarinischen Antagonisten Ipratropiumbromid, allein oder in Kombination mit einem kurzwirksamen b2-Sympathomimetikum, beruht, ist ihr Einsatz aufgrund der dabei auftretenden unerwünschten Nebenwirkungen limitiert. Neben M3- Rezeptoren findet man in der menschlichen Lunge auch präsynaptische M2- Rezeptoren, deren Blockade zu einem Anstieg der Acetylcholinfreisetzung führt. Demzufolge würde die Entwicklung eines hochselektiven und/oder langwirksamen muskarinischen M3-Rezeptorantagonisten einen großen Fortschritt für die Behandlung von Patienten mit COPD und auch Asthma bedeuten. Untersuchung der Stereoisomere des Glycopyrroniumbromids und der entsprechenden tertiären Analoga: Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden sowohl die vier reinen Stereoisomere des Glycopyrroniumbromids als auch die entsprechenden vier tertiären Analoga untersucht. Bislang wird das Diastereomerengemisch (RS/SR), das als RobinulÒ im Handel ist, vorwiegend als Antisialagogum in der Prämedikation der Narkose oder als Spasmolytikum therapeutisch eingesetzt. Die molekulare Struktur des Glycopyrroniumbromids weist zwei Chiralitätszentren auf, woraus sich vier stereoisomere Verbindungen ergeben. Die pharmakologische Untersuchung sowohl der quartären als auch der korrespondierenden tertiären Isomere in den funktionellen Standardmodellen, Kaninchen-Vas-deferens für M1-Rezeptoren, linker Vorhof des Meerschweinchenherzens für M2-Rezeptoren und die Längsmuskulatur des Meerschweinchenileum für M3-Rezeptoren, ergab, dass sich alle Verbindungen an den untersuchten Muskarinrezeptorsubtypen als potente Antagonisten verhielten. Ihre Rezeptorselektivität war jedoch relativ gering, wobei im Allgemeinen die niedrigste Affinität zum M2-Rezeptor beobachtet wurde. Innerhalb der Stereoisomeren zeigten die (R/R')- und (S/R')-konfigurierten Verbindungen den stärksten, die (S/S')-konfigurierten Isomere hingegen den geringsten antagonistischen Effekt. Diese Ergebnisse konnten durch Radioligand- Bindungsstudien bestätigt werden. Bemerkenswert war jedoch, dass insbesondere am M3-Rezeptor eine extrem langsame Dissoziation der Substanzen vom Rezeptor festgestellt wurde. Verbunden mit der hohen Affinität und der in Bindungsstudien ermittelten Dissoziationshalbwertszeit von 120 min könnte das quartäre (R/R')-konfigurierte Stereoisomer des Glycopyrroniumbromids eine geeignete Alternative zur Behandlung der COPD darstellen: Die lange Halbwertszeit sollte eine Einmalgabe pro Tag erlauben und somit die Patientencompliance erhöhen, die hohe Affinität eine geringe Dosierung ermöglichen und die kinetische Selektivität' sowie die quartäre Struktur könnten zur Minimierung unerwünschter Nebenwirkungen führen. Aufgrund dieser Vorteile wurde die Substanz patentiert und der pharmazeutischen Industrie für weiterführende Untersuchungen zur Verfügung gestellt. Untersuchungen an der Längsmuskulatur des Meerschweinchenileum in Hinblick auf die Verteilung von P2-Rezeptoren: Aufgrund der Pionierarbeit, die Ende der 70er Jahre von Burnstock und seinen Mitarbeitern geleistet wurde, wandelte sich das Bild von ATP als einer Energiequelle der Zelle zu einem Neurotransmitter ubiquitären Vorkommens mit entsprechenden Zielstrukturen, den P2-Rezeptoren. Inzwischen ist allgemein anerkannt, dass zwischen metabotropen P2Y-Rezeptoren und ionotropen P2X- Rezeptoren unterschieden werden kann. Mit Hilfe von Klonierungstechniken konnte diese Klassifizierung validiert und außerdem eine Vielzahl unterschiedlicher Subtypen identifiziert werden. Bis heute wurden sieben P2X- (P2X1-7) und sechs P2Y- Rezeptorsubtypen (P2Y1, P2Y2, P2Y4, P2Y6, P2Y11, P2Y12) kloniert und pharmakologisch charakterisiert. Sie gelten unumstritten als Vertreter der P2-Rezeptorfamilie. Heute besteht eine der größten Herausforderungen auf diesem sich explosionsartig expandierendem Gebiet darin, die geklonten P2-Rezeptoren mit den verschiedenen physiologischen Antworten, die durch native P2-Rezeptoren vermittelt werden, in Einklang zu bringen. Da die Längsmuskulatur des Meerschweinchenileum ein bekanntes Modell, z.B. für Untersuchungen an Muskarinrezeptoren, darstellt, war das Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit, dieses Modell in Bezug auf die Verteilung von P2-Rezeptoren hin zu untersuchen. Neben Agonisten, die eine Präferenz für entweder ionotrope (a,b-meATP) oder metabotrope (ADPbS) P2-Rezeptoren aufweisen, wurden im wesentlichen eine Reihe gut untersuchter Antagonisten mit zum Teil hoher Affinität für einen Rezeptorsubtyp für die funktionellen Untersuchungen verwendet. Die neuronale Lokalisation des P2X-Rezeptors konnte durch die komplette Aufhebung der durch a,b-meATP-vermittelten Kontraktionen nach Zugabe von TTX charakterisiert werden. Die ebenfalls fast vollständige Hemmung der Kontraktion nach Einsatz von Atropin wies auf einen indirekten, durch Acetylcholin vermittelten Effekt hin. Aufgrund dieser Beobachtungen wurden sämtliche Versuche mit P2-Antagonisten unter Zusatz von 70 µM Physostigmin in der Nährlösung durchgeführt. Die eingesetzten Antagonisten Suramin, NF023 und NF279 erwiesen sich als kompetitive Antagonisten, während PPADS neben der Rechtsverschiebung einen Maximumabfall der Agonistenkurven bewirkte. Ein Vergleich der funktionell ermittelten pA2-Werte mit den Wirkstärken an rekombinanten P2-Rezeptoren von Ratte und Mensch lässt vermuten, dass es sich hierbei um einen P2X3- Rezeptorsubtyp handelt, der über die Freisetzung von Acetylcholin eine Kontraktion der glatten Muskulatur über einen indirekten Mechanismus auslöst. Da sich P2X-Rezeptoruntereinheiten neben homomeren auch zu heteromeren, funktionell aktiven Kanälen vereinen können, könnte es sich bei dem vorliegenden soma-dendritischen P2X-Rezeptor aber auch um ein Heteromer handeln, bei dem der P2X3-Rezeptor den Phänotyp bestimmt. Solange noch keine eindeutige Identifizierung dieses Rezeptors speziesspezifisch auf molekularer Ebene erfolgt ist, sollte man deshalb die Bezeichnung P2X3(-ähnlicher)-Rezeptor verwenden. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass eine Stimulation des präsynaptischen P2X3(- ähnlichen)-Rezeptors zur Ausschüttung von Acetylcholin führt, das wiederum postsynaptisch einen kontraktionsvermittelnden Muskarinrezeptor aktiviert. Um zu beweisen, dass es sich dabei um denselben Muskarinrezeptorsubtyp handelt, der bereits auf direktem Weg durch APE oder mittels EFS als M3-Rezeptor charakterisiert werden konnte, wurden die Affinitäten muskarinischer Antagonisten als Kriterien herangezogen. Die erhaltenen Korrelationen wiesen eindeutig darauf hin, dass dieser postsynaptisch im GPI lokalisierte Muskarinrezeptor dem nativen und rekombinanten, kontraktionsvermittelnden M3-Rezeptorsubtyp entspricht. Durch Zugabe von ADPbS konnten im GPI Kontraktionen ausgelöst werden, die allerdings mit TTX und Atropin nur zum Teil gehemmt wurden. Diese Beobachtungen führten zu der Erkenntnis, dass postsynaptisch P2Y-Rezeptoren lokalisiert sind. Ihre Subtypcharakterisierung erfolgte unter Zusatz von 0.3 µM Atropin in der Nährlösung, um den Einfluss der neuronalen P2X3-Rezeptoren zu unterbinden. Suramin, NF023 und NF279 zeigten wiederum einen kompetitiven Antagonismus gegen ADPbS, während PPADS auch hier eine Rechtsverschiebung mit Maximumdepression der Agonistenkurve hervorrief. Ein erneuter Vergleich mit beschriebenen Affinitätswerten von rekombinanten P2- Rezeptoren ließ den Schluss zu, dass der im GPI postsynaptisch gefundene P2Y- Rezeptor Eigenschaften des P2Y1-Rezeptorsubtyps aufweist. Eine Bestätigung dafür gaben außerdem die P2Y1-selektiven Bisphosphate A3P5P und MRS2179, obgleich sie geringere pIC50-Werte aufzeigten als in der Literatur beschrieben. Mit der Charakterisierung des neuronalen P2X3-Rezeptors und des postsynaptischen P2Y1-Rezeptors ist das GPI ein bisher einzigartiges funktionelles pharmakologisches Modell, in dem beide P2-Rezeptorsubtypen durch Einsatz des jeweiligen Agonisten, a,b-meATP oder ADPbS, pharmakologisch isoliert werden können. Charakterisierung von P2-Rezeptoren in der Längsmuskulatur des Rattenileum: Eine im Vergleich zum GPI gänzlich andere Situation zeigte sich im RI. Die getesteten P2-Agonisten ADPbS, a,b-meATP, a,b-meADP und ATPgS erzeugten Kontraktionen im untersuchten Gewebe, wobei sich a,b-meATP als effektivster Agonist erwies. Im Unterschied zum GPI führte eine wiederholte Gabe von a,b- meATP allerdings nicht zu einer Desensibilisierung des Rezeptors. Die durch Zugabe von TTX und Atropin erreichte Kontraktionshemmung lässt auf das Vorhandensein von sowohl prä- als auch postsynaptischen P2X-Rezeptoren schließen. Eine Trennung der durch diese Rezeptoren hervorgerufenen Effekte war im funktionellen Experiment jedoch nicht durchführbar. Keinerlei Effekt zeigte allerdings der Zusatz von TTX und Atropin auf die durch ADPbS ausgelösten Kontraktionen. Suramin, NF023 und PPADS erwiesen sich als sehr schwache Antagonisten an diesem Präparat. Auffällig war hingegen, dass die durch den Antagonisten verschobenen Kurven jeweils steiler und im Maximum höher waren als die Kontroll-Agonistenkurve. Man kann also hier nur spekulieren, dass durch die Antagonisten zunächst ein relaxationsvermittelnder Rezeptor geblockt wurde und in Folge nur noch der Effekt des kontraktionsvermittelnden Rezeptors sichtbar war. Obwohl Gewebe der Ratte häufig als funktionelle Modelle in der experimentellen Pharmakologie eingesetzt werden, konnten auf Grund fehlender subtypselektiver Agonisten und Antagonisten die kontraktionsvermittelnden P2-Rezeptorsubtypen im RI nicht identifiziert werden. Des weiteren zeigt ein Vergleich mit dem GPI, dass bedeutende Unterschiede bei der Verwendung gleichen Gewebes zweier verschiedener Spezies existieren können, die bei der vergleichenden Betrachtung von Affinitätswerten von Agonisten und Antagonisten zur Charakterisierung von Rezeptorsubtypen beachtet werden müssen.
Na+/H+ antiporters are located in the cytoplasmic and intracellular membranes and play crucial roles in regulating intracellular pH, Na+, and volume. The NhaA antiporter of Escherichia coli is the best studied member of the Na+/H+ exchanger family and a model system for all related Na+/H+ exchangers, including eukaryotic representatives. Several amino acid residues are important for the transport activity of NhaA, including Lys-300, a residue that has recently been proposed to carry one of the two H+ ions that NhaA exchanges for one Na+ ion during one transport cycle. Here, we sought to characterize the effects of mutating Lys-300 of NhaA to amino acid residues containing side chains of different polarity and length (i.e. Ala, Arg, Cys, His, Glu, and Leu) on transporter stability and function. Salt resistance assays, acridine-orange fluorescence dequenching, solid supported membrane-based electrophysiology, and differential scanning fluorometry were used to characterize Na+ and H+ transport, charge translocation, and thermal stability of the different variants. These studies revealed that NhaA could still perform electrogenic Na+/H+ exchange even in the absence of a protonatable residue at the Lys-300 position. However, all mutants displayed lower thermal stability and reduced ion transport activity compared with the wild-type enzyme, indicating the critical importance of Lys-300 for optimal NhaA structural stability and function. On the basis of these experimental data, we propose a tentative mechanism integrating the functional and structural role of Lys-300.
More than 70 years ago, the effects of extracellular adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP), a newly identified and purified biomolecule at that time (Fiske and Subbarow, 1925; Lohmann, 1929) were observed by Drury and Szent-Györgyi (1929). Since then, many pharmacological studies were carried out with extracellular adenine nucleotides in various intact organ systems, isolated tissues, and purified cell preparations. Yet it was not until 1972 that Burnstock introduced the concept of "purinergic nerves" and suggested that ATP might fulfil the criteria generally regarded as necessary for establishing a substance as a neurotransmitter, summarised by Eccles (1964):
• synthesis and storage of transmitter in nerve terminals
Strips of guinea-pig taenia coli (GPTC) were shown to take up large amounts of tritium-labelled adenosine when incubated with tritium-labelled adenosine, adenosine 5'-monophosphate (AMP), adenosine 5'-diphosphate (ADP) and ATP. The nucleoside was rapidly converted into and retained largely as [ 3 H]-ATP (Su et al., 1971).
• release of transmitter during nerve stimulation
Spontaneous relaxation of GPTC as well as relaxations induced by nerve stimulation or nicotine, respectively, in the presence of compounds which block adrenergic and cholinergic responses were accompanied by a remarkable increase in release of tritium-labelled material from taenia coli incubated in [ 3 H]-adenosine (Su et al., 1971).
• postjunctional responses to exogenous transmitters that mimic responses to nerve stimulation
Burnstock et al. (1966) characterised ATP and ADP as the most potent inhibitory purine compounds in the gut and observed that the effects of ATP mimic more closely the inhibitory response of the taenia to non-adrenergic nerve-stimulation than to adrenergic nerve stimulation (Burnstock et al., 1970).
enzymes that inactivate the transmitter and/or uptake systems for the transmitter or its breakdown products
When ATP was added to a perfusion fluid recycled through the vasculature of the stomach, very little ATP remained, but the perfusate contained substantially increased amounts of adenosine and inosine, as well as some ADP and AMP (Burnstock et al., 1970).
• drugs that can produce parallel blocking of potentiating effects on the responses of both exogenous transmitter and nerve stimulation
Tachyphylaxis to ATP produced in the rabbit ileum resulted in a consistent depression of responses to non-adrenergic inhibitory nerve stimulation, whereas responses to adrenergic nerve stimulation remained unaffected (Burnstock et al., 1970). Lower concentrations of quinidine reduced and finally abolished relaxation of GPTC induced by noradrenaline (NA) and by adrenergic nerve stimulation. Using higher concentrations of the compound, relaxant responses of GPTC to ATP as well as to non-adrenergic inhibitory nerve stimulation were abolished (Burnstock et al., 1970). ...
Crohn´s disease (CD) and Ulcerative colitis (UC) are idiopathic inflammatory disorders. Environmental factors, infectious microbes, ethnic origin, genetic susceptibility, and a dysregulated immune system can result in mucosal inflammation. However, the etiology of both CD and UC still remains largely unclear. Inflammatory bowel diseaserelated animal models suggest that a combination of genetic susceptibility factors and altered immune response driven by microbial factors in the enteric environment may contribute to the initiation and chronification of the disease. The intestinal immune system represents a complex network of different lymphoid and non-lymphoid cell populations as well as humoral factors. In inflammatory bowel disease, the controlled balance of the intestinal immune system is disturbed at all levels. In CD, naïve T cells preferably differentiate into Th1 or Th17 producing cells, while in UC, these cells differentiate into aberrant Th2 cells. Overall, in active inflammatory bowel disease effector T cell activity (Th1, Th17, Th2) predominates over regulatory T cells. Animal models of intestinal inflammation are indispensable for our understanding of the pathogenesis of CD and UC. When chosen appropriately, these models proved to be a helpful tool to investigate pathophysiological mechanisms, as well as to test emerging therapeutic options in the preclinical phase. 2,4,6-Trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS) and oxazolone are the two major chemicals applied to induce Th1- and Th2-skewed intestinal inflammation, respectively. Colitis can be induced in susceptible strains of mice by intrarectal instillation of the haptenating substances TNBS or oxazolone in ethanol, which is necessary for an initial desintegration of the epithelial barrier. TNBS or oxazolone are believed to haptenize colonic autologous or microbiotic proteins rendering them immunogenic to the host immune system. While TNBS administration in the presence of ethanol results in a transmural infiltrative disease in the entire colon based on an IL-12/IL-23 driven, Th1-or Th17 mediated response, oxazolone instillation finally leads to a colitis caused by a polarized Th2 IL-13-dominated lymphocyte response. Rectal oxazolone instillation in ethanol produces a more superficial inflammation that affects the distal half of the colon rather than the whole colon. Therapeutic modulation of the disturbed immune response in patients with inflammatory bowel disease still represents a complex challenge in the clinic. Currently, none of the therapeutic measure are disease specific and they generally target the pathophysiology downstream of the driving immunpathology. So, there is still the need to develop a tailored approach to prevention of the initiation and perpetuation of the inflammatory cascade before tissue injury occurs. One important aspect of this approach might involve the induction or re-establishment of immunological tolerance. FTY720 following rapid phosphorylation to FTY-P by endogenous sphingosine kinases acts as a sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) receptor agonist and represents the prototype of a new generation of S1P receptor modulators. While changing currently its proposed mode of action still focus on the fact, that FTY720 effectively inhibits the egress of T-cells from lymph nodes, thereby reducing the number of antigen-primed/restimulated cells that re-circulate to peripheral inflammatory tissues. However, recent studies indicate, that its immunomodulatory properties might be more complex and exerted not only via interactions with other S1P receptor subtypes but also via a direct modulation of the inflammatory capacity of dendritic cells (DC) resulting in a modified regulation of T cell effector functions as well as in an induction of regulatory T cells and function. 1,25(OH)2D3, the active form of vitamin D, is a secosteroid hormone that has in addition to its central function in calcium and bone metabolism pronounced immune regulatory properties. The biological effects of calcitriol are mediated by the vitamin D receptor (VDR), a member of the superfamily of nuclear hormone receptors. A number of studies identified calcitriol/VDR as prominent negative regulators of Th1-type immune responses, whereas Th2 responses are not affected or even augmented. These effects have been mainly explained by direct activities on lymphocytes, subsequent studies clearly supported a role of calcitriol in modulating monocyte differentiation or DC maturation. However, to translate the immunosuppressive capacities of calcitriol into an effective immunointervention, a great challenge was the design of structural analogs of calcitriol that are devoid of adverse effects related to hypercalcemic activity. The intense study of the 25-oxa series generated a large number of calcitriol analogs exhibiting substantial dissociation between possible immunomodulatory capacities and undesired hypercalcemia. Especially, the combination of the 22-ene modification with the 25-oxa element as realized in ZK156979 yielded a very promising set of new analogs for further characterization in animal models resembling human autoimmune diseases. So, the overall aim of the studies presented here was to evaluate strategies of enhancing regulatory immunity in mouse models of Th1- and Th2-mediated colitis as a new therapeutic approach. To this end we used FTY720, 22-ene-25-oxa vitamin D (ZK156979), as well as the combination of calcitriol and dexamethasone to evaluate the respective pro-tolerogenic potential in intestinal inflammation models in mice. First, to induce Th1-mediated colitis a rectal enema of TNBS was given to Balb/c mice. FTY720 was administered i.p. from day 0-3 or 3-5. FTY720 substantially reduced all clinical, histopathologic, macroscopic, and microscopic parameters of colitis analyzed. The therapeutic effects of FTY720 were associated with a down-regulation of IL-12p70 and subsequent Th1 cytokines. Importantly, FTY720 treatment resulted in a prominent up-regulation of FoxP3, IL-10, TGFβ and CTLA4. Moreover, we observed a significant increase of CD25 and FoxP3 expression in isolated lamina propria CD4+ T cells of FTY720-treated mice. The impact of FTY720 on regulatory T cell induction was further confirmed by concomitant in vivo blockade of CTLA4 or IL-10R which significantly abrogated its therapeutic activity. Thus, our data provide new and strong evidence that besides its well-established migratory properties FTY720 down-regulates proinflammatory signals while simultaneously inducing the functional activity of CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells. In a second approach, the rectal instillation of oxazolone yielded a Th2-mediated colitis. Treatment with FTY720 prominently reduced the clinical and histopathologic severity of oxazolone-induced colitis, abrogating body weight loss, diarrhea, and macroscopic and microscopic intestinal inflammation. The therapeutic effects of FTY720 were associated with a prominent reduction of the key Th2 effector cytokines IL-13, IL-4 and IL-5. Moreover, FTY720 inhibited GATA3 and T1/ST2 expression, which represent distinct markers for Th2 differentiation and Th2 effector function. Thus, our data are supportive for the view that FTY720 exhibits beneficial prophylactic as well as therapeutic effects in Th2-mediated experimental colitis by directly affecting Th2 cytokine profiles, probably by reducing GATA3 and T1/ST2. Recently, we described 22-ene-25-oxa-vitamin D (ZK156979) as a representative of a novel class of low calcemic vitamin D analogs showing prominent immunomodulative capacities. Here, we used the Th1-mediated TNBS colitis to test its anti-inflammatory properties in vivo. We found that treatment with ZK156979 clearly inhibited the severity of TNBS-induced colitis without exhibiting calcemic effects. Both early and late treatment abrogated all the clinical macroscopic and microscopic parameters of colitis severity; in addition we observed a clear down-regulation of the relevant Th1 cytokine pattern including the T-box transcription factor, T-bet. On the other hand, application of ZK156979 increased local tissue IL-10 and IL-4. Finally, as a new approach we evaluated the pro-tolerogenic potential of calcitriol and dexamethasone in acute Th1-mediated colitis. Calcitriol and/or dexamethasone were administered i.p. from day 0-3 or from day 3-5 following the instillation of the haptenating agent. The combination of these steroids most effectively reduced the clinical and histopathologic severity of TNBS colitis. Th1-related parameters were down- while Th2 markers like IL-4 and GATA3 were up-regulated. Clearly distinguishable from known steroid effects calcitriol in particular promoted regulatory T cell profiles as indicated by a marked increase of IL-10, TGFß, FoxP3 and CTLA4. Furthermore, analysis of DC mediators responsible for a pro-inflammatory differentiation of T cells revealed a clear reduction of IL-12p70, and IL23p19 as well as IL-6 and IL-17. Thus, our data suggest the concept of a steroid-sparing application of calcitriol derivatives in inflammatory bowel disease. Furthermore, the data presented suggest that early markers of inflammatory DC and Th17 differentiation might qualify as new target molecules for both calcitriol as well as for selective immune modulating vitamin D analogs. In conclusion the data of these published investigations added to the substantial progress in understanding the biology of tolerogenic DC and regulatory T cells with respect to their roles in health and disease achieved in the past years. This has led to an increasing interest in the possibility of using DC and regulatory T cells as biological therapeutics to preserve and restore tolerance to self antigens and alloantigens. Especially DC may be helpful to exert their important roles in directing tolerance and immunity by modulation of subpopulations of effector T cells and regulatory T cells. The data demonstrated in the present studies may assist to define the divergent implications of new therapeutic concepts for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease, especially with regard to a possible auspicious impact on pro-tolerogenic DC and regulatory T cell functions. However, further studies are needed to fulfil our understanding of the complex immunomodulatory profiles of FTY720 as well as of calcitriol and its low calcemic analog ZK156979, thus accelerating their entry into the clinic as new therapeutic options for the cure of inflammatory bowel disease.
Ultraviolet-B (UVB)-induced inflammation produces a dose-dependent mechanical and thermal hyperalgesia in both humans and rats, most likely via inflammatory mediators acting at the site of injury. Previous work has shown that the gene expression of cytokines and chemokines is positively correlated between species and that these factors can contribute to UVB-induced pain. In order to investigate other potential pain mediators in this model we used RNA-seq to perform genome-wide transcriptional profiling in both human and rat skin at the peak of hyperalgesia. In addition we have also measured transcriptional changes in the L4 and L5 DRG of the rat model. Our data show that UVB irradiation produces a large number of transcriptional changes in the skin: 2186 and 3888 genes are significantly dysregulated in human and rat skin, respectively. The most highly up-regulated genes in human skin feature those encoding cytokines (IL6 and IL24), chemokines (CCL3, CCL20, CXCL1, CXCL2, CXCL3 and CXCL5), the prostanoid synthesising enzyme COX-2 and members of the keratin gene family. Overall there was a strong positive and significant correlation in gene expression between the human and rat (R = 0.8022). In contrast to the skin, only 39 genes were significantly dysregulated in the rat L4 and L5 DRGs, the majority of which had small fold change values. Amongst the most up-regulated genes in DRG were REG3B, CCL2 and VGF. Overall, our data shows that numerous genes were up-regulated in UVB irradiated skin at the peak of hyperalgesia in both human and rats. Many of the top up-regulated genes were cytokines and chemokines, highlighting again their potential as pain mediators. However many other genes were also up-regulated and might play a role in UVB-induced hyperalgesia. In addition, the strong gene expression correlation between species re-emphasises the value of the UVB model as translational tool to study inflammatory pain.
Amorphous formulation technologies to improve oral absorption of poorly soluble active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) have become increasingly prevalent. Currently, polymer-based amorphous formulations manufactured by spray drying, hot melt extrusion (HME), or co-precipitation are most common. However, these technologies have challenges in terms of the successful stabilization of poor glass former compounds in the amorphous form. An alternative approach is mesoporous silica, which stabilizes APIs in non-crystalline form via molecular adsorption inside nano-scale pores. In line with these considerations, two poor glass formers, haloperidol and carbamazepine, were formulated as polymer-based solid dispersion via HME and with mesoporous silica, and their stability was compared under accelerated conditions. Changes were monitored over three months with respect to solid-state form and dissolution. The results were supported by solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (SS-NMR) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). It was demonstrated that mesoporous silica was more successful than HME in the stabilization of the selected poor glass formers. While both drugs remained non-crystalline during the study using mesoporous silica, polymer-based HME formulations showed recrystallization after one week. Thus, mesoporous silica represents an attractive technology to extend the formulation toolbox to poorly soluble poor glass formers.
Protein kinases are highly tractable targets for drug discovery. However, the biological function and therapeutic potential of the majority of the 500+ human protein kinases remains unknown. We have developed physical and virtual collections of small molecule inhibitors, which we call chemogenomic sets, that are designed to inhibit the catalytic function of almost half the human protein kinases. In this manuscript we share our progress towards generation of a comprehensive kinase chemogenomic set (KCGS), release kinome profiling data of a large inhibitor set (Published Kinase Inhibitor Set 2 (PKIS2)), and outline a process through which the community can openly collaborate to create a KCGS that probes the full complement of human protein kinases.
The chemopreventive and anticancer effects of resveratrol (RSV) are widely reported in the literature. Specifically, mechanisms involving epigenetic regulation are promising targets to regulate tumor development. Bromodomains act as epigenetic readers by recognizing lysine acetylation on histone tails and boosting gene expression in order to regulate tissue-specific transcription. In this work, we showed that RSV is a pan-BET inhibitor. Using Differential Scanning Fluorimetry (DSF), we showed that RSV at 100 µM increased the melting temperature (∆Tm) of BET bromodomains by around 2.0 °C. The micromolar dissociation constant (Kd) range was characterized using Isothermal Titration Calorimetry (ITC). The RSV Kd value accounted to 6.6 µM in case of BRD4(1). Molecular docking proposed the binding mode of RSV against BRD4(1) mimicking the acetyl-lysine interactions. All these results suggest that RSV can also recognize epigenetic readers domains by interacting with BET bromodomains.
As major sources of reactive oxygen species (ROS), mitochondrial structures are exposed to high concentrations of ROS and may therefore be particularly susceptible to oxidative damage. Mitochondrial damage could play a pivotal role in the cell death decision. A decrease in mitochondrial energy charge and redox state, loss of transmembrane potential (depolarization), mitochondrial respiratory chain impairment, and release of substances such as calcium and cytochrome c all contribute to apoptosis. These mitochondrial abnormalities may constitute a part of the spectrum of chronic oxidative stress in Alzheimer's disease. Accumulation of amyloid beta (Abeta) in form of senile plaques is also thought to play a central role in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease mediated by oxidative stress. In addition, increasing evidence shows that Abeta generates free radicals in vitro, which mediate the toxicity of this peptide. In our study, PC12 cells were used to examine the protective features of EGb 761(definition see editorial) on mitochondria stressed with hydrogen peroxide and antimycin, an inhibitor of complex III. In addition, we investigated the efficacy of EGb 761 in Abeta-induced MTT reduction in PC12 cells. Moreover, we examined the effects of EGb 761 on ROS levels and ROS-induced apoptosis in lymphocytes from aged mice after in vivo administration. Here, we will report that EGb 761 was able to protect mitochondria from the attack of hydrogen peroxide, antimycin and Abeta. Furthermore, EGb 761 reduced ROS levels and ROS-induced apoptosis in lymphocytes from aged mice treated orally with EGb 761 for 2 weeks. Our data further emphasize neuroprotective properties of EGb 761, such as protection against Abeta-toxicity, and antiapoptotic properties, which are probably due to its preventive effects on mitochondria.
Many cases of early-onset inherited Alzheimer's disease (AD) are caused by mutations in the presenilin-1 (PS1) gene. Expression of PS1 mutations in cell culture systems and in primary neurons from transgenic mice increases their vulnerability to cell death. Interestingly, enhanced vulnerability to cell death has also been demonstrated for peripheral lymphocytes from AD patients. We now report that lymphocytes from PS1 mutant transgenic mice show a similar hypersensitivity to cell death as do peripheral cells from AD patients and several cell culture systems expressing PS1 mutations. The cell death-enhancing action of mutant PS1 was associated with increased production of reactive oxygen species and altered calcium regulation, but not with changes of mitochondrial cytochrome c. Our study further emphasizes the pathogenic role of mutant PS1 and may provide the fundamental basis for new efforts to close the gap between studies using neuronal cell lines transfected with mutant PS1, neurons from transgenic animals, and peripheral cells from AD patients. Copyright 2001 Academic Press.
Lipid rafts are specialized plasma membrane micro-domains highly enriched in cholesterol, sphingolipids and glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchored proteins. Lipid rafts are thought to be located in the exofacial leaflet of plasma membranes. Functionally, lipid rafts are involved in intracellular trafficking of proteins and lipids, secretory and endocytotic pathways, signal transduction, inflammation and in cell-surface proteolysis. There has been substantial interest in lipid rafts in brain, both with respect to normal functioning and with certain neurodegenerative diseases. Based on the impact of lipid rafts on multitude biochemical pathways, modulation of lipid rafts is used to study related disease pathways and probably offers a target for pharmacological intervention. Lipid rafts can be targeted by modulation of its main components, namely cholesterol and sphingolipids. Other approaches include the modulation of membrane dynamics and it has been reported that protein-lipid interactions can vary the occurrence and composition of these membrane micro-domains. The present review summarizes the possibilities to modulate lipid rafts with focus on neuronal cells. Keywords: Lipid raft, cholesterol, membrane fluidity, statin, cyclodextrine, docosahexaenoic acid.
To understand neurodegenerative diseases is one of the major challenges of the 21st century. This also includes Alzheimer´s disease (AD), which represents a chronic neurodegenerative disorder, with long preclinical and prodromal phases (approx. 20 years) and an average clinical duration of 8–10 years. In the early phase of this disease, patients show deterioration of memory, difficulties in finding the right words for everyday objects or mood swings. The risk of AD grows exponentially with age, doubling approximately every 5 to 6 years. AD may contribute to 60–70% of all dementia cases, being the most common cause of this disease. Dementia is one of the major causes of disability and dependency among older people worldwide. The causes of the sporadic form of AD with late onset (LOAD) are not yet known, but it seems to be a result of multiple factors. Neuropathological features are extracellular senile plaques, containing beta-amyloid peptides (Aβ) and intracellular neurofibrillary tangles, containing paired helical tau proteins, which have been associated with neuronal loss and atrophy of the cerebral cortex. Thus, misfolded proteins seem to contribute to the pathogenesis, but are not the only players in the disease process. Developing feasible therapies is difficult due to the multifactorial pathology of AD. Currently approved drugs only attenuate symptoms, but do not cure the disease. Research into AD also has had several failures in terms of developing disease-modifying therapies. Thus, new therapeutic targets in order to develop a causal therapy are desperately needed. Since AD starts many years far before the first symptoms occur, new scientific approaches focus on the early stage, which are discussed to be important in aging and the onset of AD. Today, the hypothesis of the advanced mitochondrial cascade becomes more and more the leading model for LOAD, integrating physiological aging as the main risk factor. Thus, new interventions targeting mitochondrial dysfunction are of substantial interest. Accordingly, the efficacy of Dimebon and TRO19622 to ameliorate mitochondrial dysfunction in cellular and murine models of AD were investigated. Dimebon (Latrepirdine) was, originally developed in Russia as an H1-antiallergic drug. It might specifically interfere with mechanisms relevant for the cognitive decline, especially by improving impaired mitochondrial function and/or dynamics in AD. TRO19622 (Olesoxim) has been identified in a phenotypic screening approach to promote the survival of primary motor neurons. Olesoxim is easily absorbed by cells and accumulates in mitochondria. Olesoxim’s mode of action is not fully understood, however it has been shown to modulate mitochondrial membranes and interact with the voltage-dependent anion channel (VDAC) and the translocator protein (TSPO; also known as PBR). Thereby it inhibits mitochondrial permeability transition. In this study, the effects of Aβ overproduction on mitochondrial function were investigated. The effects of Dimebon and Olesoxim were examined, using a HEK cell line stably transfected with the Swedish APP double mutation (HEKsw) and un-transfected control cells (HEKut). Mitochondrial membrane potential, ATP concentrations, and respirometry were measured. Western Blot analysis of marker proteins for fission & fusion, autophagy, mitogenesis and mPTP formation were performed. Confocal laser scanning microscopy was introduced as a novel method to visualize mitochondrial dynamics. Olesoxim was also tested in Thy-1-C57BJ/6-APPSL mice representing a murine model of AD. For the in vivo model mitochondria from brain tissue were isolated and dissociated brain cells were prepared to determine respiration, lipid peroxidation, MMP, and ATP-levels. Both, the in vitro and in vivo models were compared and discussed in relation to human post-mortem data. The research was conducted in frame of the EU-project entitled „MITOTARGET“ (Mitochondrial dysfunction in neurodegenerative diseases: towards new therapeutics) funded under FP7-Health (http://cordis.europa.eu/result/rcn/54471_en.html). HEKsw cells showed an overall reduction in the mitochondrial respiration, a significant lower MMP, and significantly reduced ATP levels compared to HEKut cells. Mitochondrial mass was equal in both cell lines. In addition most mitochondria in HEKsw cells showed truncated morphology, followed by punctuated mitochondria. Levels of the fission related protein Drp were significantly elevated in HEKsw cells whereas protein levels of fusion related OPA were strongly reduced, leading to a shift in the distribution pattern towards shorter mitochondria. Moreover, HEKsw cells showed reduced mitochondrial density. Protein levels of the translocase of the inner mitochondrial membrane (TIMM50) were strongly diminished in HEKsw cells. The OXPHOS machinery is located in the inner membrane, where the MMP is build up and ATP is generated. Reduced TIMM50 levels in HEKsw indicated a reduction of the inner mitochondrial membrane, which could explain the described deficits in OXPHOS, MMP, ATP and mitochondrial morphology and density. Concentration of both mPTP markers, the voltage-depended anion channel (VDAC) and the peripheral benzodiazepine receptor (PBR), were broadly increased in HEKsw cells. Thy1-APPSL transgenic mice were characterized as in vivo model of AD. Those mice are modified to express the human form of APP, containing both, the Swedish (KM670/671NL) and the London (V717L) double mutations under the murine Thy1 promotor. Beginning at the age of 3 months, Thy1-APPSL mice develop elevated Aβ levels and mitochondrial dysfunction. Mitochondria isolated from brains of Thy-1-C57BJ/6-APPSL mice showed significant impaired respiration, resulting in a reduced MMP. However, ATP levels in dissociated brain cells did not differ compared to controls. Protein levels of FIS were unchanged, whereas Drp levels were significantly increased. Levels of the mitochondrial fusion marker optic atrophie-1 (Opa) protein were significantly reduced. Peroxisome proliferation-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha (PGC1) is a transcription factor, which represents a master regulator of mitochondrial biogenesis. PGC1 expression was significantly elevated in brains of Thy-1-C57BJ/6-APPSL mice. However, mitochondrial mass seemed to be equal in both mouse lines. Both LC3-Isoforms, the cytosolic and the autophagosomal form, were not changed in brains of Thy-1-C57BJ/6-APPSL mice, which indicates equal mitophagic activity. In brain homogenates, isolated from Thy-1-C57BJ/6-APPSL mice, both mPTP marker, VDAC and PBR, were considerably increased, which is in accordance with the findings in HEKsw cells. In conclusion, both, the cellular (HEKsw) and the animal model of AD (Thy1-APPSL) broadly match pathophysiological features, which have been found in post-mortem samples from AD patients. Thus, HEKsw cells and Thy1-APPSL mice seem to be suitable models to study new treatments against AD. Incubation of HEKsw cells with Dimebon resulted in a remarkable increase in respiratory activity and restored the MMP after impairing the cells with rotenon. Dimebon had no effects on ATP levels in both cell lines, neither after challenging cells with rotenon, nor under basal conditions. By adding Dimebon, citrate synthase (CS) activity in HEKsw cells was increased and mitochondrial morphology was shifted to a tubular shape. Dimebon further enhanced protein levels of Drp and resulted in the compensation of reduced OPA levels. Moreover, Dimebon restored the increased expression levels of the mPTP markers VDAC and PBR. Aβ1-40 levels were significantly decreased in HEKsw cells. However, changes in Aβ1-40 levels seemed to be too small, to solely explain the much larger effects of Dimebon on impaired mitochondrial function. In conclusion, Dimebon treatment restored diverse defects in Aβ overexpressing cells: Aβ levels were reduced, autophagy marker were increased, mitophagy as repair and renewal mechanism was elevated, mitochondrial mass and density were increased, OXPHOS capacity was restored, mitochondrial dynamics were balanced, mitochondrial shape showed a normal distribution, expression levels of the mPTP constituents were reduced, TIMM50 levels augmented to control levels and stress induced MMP and ROS levels were reduced. All these effects were observed after incubation of cells with a rather low concentration of 100 nmol/L. Based on these findings and in addition to already existing literature, Dimebon presents a potential therapeutic option for diseases with accompanied mitochondrial dysfunction. Although, clinical findings published so far are inconsistent. Olesoxim induced a general increase in respiratory activity and enhanced the electron transport (ETS) capacity in HEKsw cells. In addition it normalized the OXPHOS activity almost to control levels. However, incubation using different Olesoxim concentrations led to a dose independent decline in the MMP and decreased ATP levels. Adding Olesoxim caused a dose-dependent change in the length of mitochondria strongly shifting the pattern towards longer mitochondria. In HEKsw cells a reduced mitochondrial density was observed which was reversed by Olesoxim dose-dependently. Olesoxim completely compensated the severely reduced expression levels of TIMM50, but had no effects on TOMM22 levels. An unexpected finding was that 10 µM Olesoxim significantly increased Aβ1-40 levels. Effects of Olesoxim were also tested in vivo. Treatment of Thy-1-C57BJ/6-APPSL mice with Olesoxim restored the impaired MMP in dissociated brain cells, but had no effects on ATP-levels. Olesoxim increased the respiratory activity in isolated brain mitochondria and restored impaired respiration complex activities almost to control levels, without having an effect on CS activity. However, treatment with Olesoxim caused an increase of PGC1 protein levels in brains of Thy-1-C57BJ/6-APPSL mice,beyond basal levels of littermate controls. The mPTP marker proteins voltage-depended anion channel (VDAC) and peripheral benzodiazepine receptor (PBR) were significantly reduced. As well as in the cell models, treatment of Thy-1-C57 BJ/6-APPSL mice with Olesoxim significantly enhanced total human, soluble human and soluble mouse Aβ1-40 levels. Further investigation needs the observation that Olesoxim caused partly negative effects in controls. For instance, Olesoxim reduced the OXPHOS capacity and enhanced protein levels of VADAC and PBR in brains of C57BJ/6 littermate control mice, which could limit the applicability of Olesoxim in further preclinical studies.
Background: Acute leukemia in early age (EAL) is characterized by acquired genetic alterations such as MLL rearrangements (MLL-r). The aim of this case-controlled study was to investigate whether single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of IKZF1, ARID5B, and CEBPE could be related to the onset of EAL cases (<24 months-old at diagnosis).
Methods: The SNPs (IKZF1 rs11978267, ARID5B rs10821936 and rs10994982, CEBPE rs2239633) were genotyped in 265 cases [169 acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) and 96 acute myeloid leukaemia (AML)] and 505 controls by Taqman allelic discrimination assay. Logistic regression was used to evaluate the association between SNPs of cases and controls, adjusted on skin color and/or age. The risk was determined by calculating odds ratios (ORs) with 95% confidence interval (CI).
Results: Children with the IKZF1 SNP had an increased risk of developing MLL-germline ALL in white children. The heterozygous/mutant genotype in ARID5B rs10994982 significantly increased the risk for MLL-germline leukemia in white and non-white children (OR 2.60, 95% CI: 1.09-6.18 and OR 3.55, 95% CI: 1.57-8.68, respectively). The heterozygous genotype in ARID5B rs10821936 increased the risk for MLL-r leukemia in both white and non-white (OR 2.06, 95% CI: 1.12-3.79 and OR 2.36, 95% CI: 1.09-5.10, respectively). Furthermore, ARID5B rs10821936 conferred increased risk for MLL-MLLT3 positive cases (OR 7.10, 95% CI:1.54-32.68). Our data do not show evidence that CEBPE rs2239633 confers increased genetic susceptibility to EAL.
Conclusions: IKZF1 and CEBPE variants seem to play a minor role in genetic susceptibility to EAL, while ARID5B rs10821936 increased the risk of MLL-MLLT3. This result shows that genetic susceptibility could be associated with the differences regarding MLL breakpoints and partner genes.
GProteingekoppelte Rezeptoren (GPCRs) stellen eine der größten in der Natur vorkommenden Proteinfamilien dar (Watson and Arkinstall, 1994). GPCRs sind plasmamembranständige Proteine, die mit heterotrimären GProteinen interagieren und eine Vielzahl an Signaltransduktionswegen aktivieren. Trotz der strukturellen Vielfalt der an GPCRs angreifenden Liganden stimulieren die meisten GPCRs nur eine begrenzte Anzahl strukturell sehr ähnlicher GProteine (Hedin et al., 1993; Conklin and Bourne, 1993). Die Aufklärung der molekularen Mechanismen, die dieser Rezeptor/GProteinKopplungsselektivität zugrunde liegen, ist von fundamentaler Wichtigkeit für das Verständnis zellulärer Signaltransduktion. Ausführliche StrukturFunktionsanalysen verschiedener Neurotransmitter rezeptoren, einschließlich der Muskarinrezeptoren (Wess, 1996) und adrenergen Rezeptoren (Dohlman et al., 1991; Savarese and Fraser, 1992; Strader et al., 1994), haben einen beträchtlichen Beitrag zur Identifizierung der strukturellen Elemente, die für die GProteinKopplungsselektivität dieser Rezeptorgruppe verantwortlich sind, geleistet. Im Gegensatz dazu ist bisher noch weitgehend ungeklärt, welche molekularen Mechanismen der Kopplungsselektivität von GPCRs, die durch Peptidliganden aktiviert werden, zugrunde liegen. Das Ziel dieser Arbeit war daher, molekulare Grundlagen der GProtein Kopplungsselektivität von PeptidGPCRs näher zu untersuchen und aufzuklären. Die Vasopressinrezeptorfamilie unterscheidet sich von nahezu allen anderen PeptidGPCRs darin, daß die einzelnen Rezeptorsubtypen deutlich unterschiedliche GProtein Kopplungspräferenzen aufweisen. Die V1a und V1bVasopressinrezeptoren stimulieren selektiv GProteine der Gq/11 Familie, was zur Aktivierung von PhospholipaseCbeta-Isomeren führt. Im Gegensatz dazu koppelt der V2Vasopressinrezeptor vornehmlich an das GProtein G s , was in einem Anstieg an intrazellulärem cAMP resultiert. Daher stellen die Vasopressinrezeptorsubtypen ein attraktives Modellsystem zum Studium der Peptid GPCRRezeptordomänen, die für die selektive GProteinAktivierung verantwortlich sind, dar. Als Modellsystem für diese Arbeit diente primär der V2Vasopressinrezeptor. Molekulare Faktoren, die die Gs Kopplungsselektivität des V2 Vasopressinrezeptors bestimmen. Eine frühere Studie zeigte, daß die Gegenwart der V1aRezeptorsequenz in der zweiten intrazellulären (i2) Schleife notwendig war, um den Wildtyp V1a und V1a/V2 Rezeptorchimären effizient an Gq/11 Proteine zu koppeln (Liu and Wess, 1996). Effiziente Interaktionen zwischen Wildtyp V2 oder V1a/V2Rezeptorchimären und dem GProtein G s waren hingegen hauptsächlich von V2Rezeptorsequenzen in der dritten intrazellulären (i3) Schleife abhängig. Um die molekularen Grundlagen der Gs Kopplungsselektivität des V2Rezeptors näher zu untersuchen, wurden zunächst klassische Mutagenesetechniken (zielgerichtete Mutagenese'') angewandt. Definierte V2Rezeptorsegmente (oder einzelne Aminosäuren) wurden in den V1aRezeptor transferiert, und die resultierenden HybridVasopressinrezeptoren wurden anschließend in funktionellen Studien auf ihre Fähigkeit, hormonabhängig intrazelluläre cAMP Konzentrationen zu steigern (G s vermittelt), getestet. Diese Strategie schien besonders geeignet, da die Aktivierung des V1aWildtyprezeptors nahezu keine Auswirkungen auf intrazelluläre cAMPSpiegel hat. Wie bereits erwähnt, ist die effiziente Kopplung des V2Rezeptors an das Gs Protein vornehmlich von V2Rezeptorsequenzen in der i3Schleife abhängig (Liu and Wess, 1996). Eine V1aRezeptormutante, deren i3Schleife durch die homologe V2 Rezeptorsequenz ersetzt worden war, war in der Lage, effizient mit Gs zu interagieren. Die Fähigkeit dieser Rezeptormutante, Gs zu aktivieren, war jedoch im Vergleich zum V2Wildtyprezeptor vermindert. Diese Beobachtung ließ die Vermutung zu, daß noch andere intrazelluläre V2Rezeptordomänen zur optimalen Gs Kopplung notwendig sind. Daher wurde zunächst eine Reihe von V1a/V2Rezeptorchimären erzeugt, die den Beitrag der zweiten (i2) und vierten intrazellulären (i4) Rezeptordomäne zur V2 Rezeptor/G s Kopplungsselektivität klären sollten. Funktionelle Untersuchungen der resultierenden HybridRezeptormutanten in Säugetierzellen (COS7) zeigten, daß ein kurzes Segment im Nterminalen Abschnitt der i4Domäne einen deutlichen Beitrag zur V2Rezeptor/G s Kopplungsselektivität leistet. Eine V1aRezeptormutante, welche in der i3Schleife und dem Nterminalen Segment der i4Domäne (Ni4) homologe V2 Rezeptorsequenzen enthielt, zeigte ein funktionelles Profil (EC 50 und E max ), welches mit dem V2Wildtyprezeptor nahezu deckungsgleich war. Anschließend wurden strukturelle Elemente innerhalb der i3Schleife näher untersucht. Funktionelle Analysen zeigten, daß der Nterminale Abschnitt der i3Schleife weitgehend das GProteinKopplungsprofil des V2Rezeptors bestimmt. Eine Reihe von V1aRezeptormutanten wurde erzeugt, in denen kurze Segmente des Nterminalen Bereichs der i3Schleife mit der entsprechenden V2Rezeptorsequenz ausgetauscht wurden. Funktionelle Untersuchungen ergaben, daß ein Aminosäurepaar (Gln225, Val226) und triplet (Phe229, Arg 230, Glu231) am Beginn der i3Schleife des V2 Rezeptors für die effiziente Aktivierung von Gs von entscheidender Bedeutung sind. Durch Punktmutationen in diesem Bereich wurden zwei polare Aminosäuren, Gln225 und Glu231, identifiziert, die für die effiziente V2Rezeptor/G s Interaktion essentiell sind. Untersuchungen mit anderen GPCRKlassen (Dohlman et al., 1991; Savarese and Fraser, 1992; Strader et al., 1994; Wess, 1996) haben ebenfalls gezeigt, daß dem N Terminus der i3Schleife eine besondere Rolle im Rezeptor/GProteinKopplungsprozeß zukommt. In diesen Studien wird berichtet, daß vornehmlich hydrophobe und ungeladene Aminosäuren Schlüsselrollen in der rezeptorvermittelten GProteinAktivierung einnehmen. Die hier beschriebenen Untersuchungen hingegen ergaben, daß zwei polare/geladene Aminosäuren, Gln225 und Glu231, für die V2Rezeptor/G s Kopplung von besonderer Wichtigkeit sind und zeigen daher, daß die Rezeptor/GProtein Kopplungsselektivität nicht auf ausschließlich hydrophoben Wechselwirkungen beruht. Desweiteren konnte beobachtet werden, daß die Länge der i3Schleife die Effizienz, mit der der V2Rezeptor GProteine der Gs Klasse zu aktivieren vermag, beeinflußen kann. Die V1a und V2Rezeptoren weisen unterschiedlich lange i3 Schleifen auf (die i3Schleife des V2Rezeptors ist 13 Aminosäuren kürzer als die des V1aRezeptors). Eine V1aRezeptormutante, deren Nterminaler Abschnitt der i3 Schleife durch homologe V2Rezeptorsequenz ersetzt wurde, konnte deutlich effizienter mit Gs interagieren, wenn der mittlere Abschnitt der i3Schleife um elf Aminosäuren verkürzt wurde. Gleichermaßen konnte die effiziente Kopplung bestimmter V1a/V2Hybridrezeptoren an Gs durch Einfügen von elf Aminosäuren in den zentralen Bereich der i3Schleife deutlich gehemmt werden. Diese Ergebnisse legen nahe, daß der zentrale Bereich der i3Schleife die Rezeptor/GProteinKopplungsselektivität beeinflussen kann, obgleich diese Rezeptordomäne vermutlich nicht direkt mit dem GProtein interagiert. Es ist denkbar, daß die Länge der i3Schleife den Zugang des GProteins zu funktionell wichtigen Rezeptordomänen, z.B. Aminosäuren im Bereich der fünften Transmembrandomäne (TM V) und der i3Schleife, reguliert. Identifizierung einzelner Aminosäuresubstitutionen und Aminosäuredeletionen, die die GProteinKopplungsselektivität des V2Rezeptors beeinflussen: Einsatz von Hefeexpressionstechnologie und zufallsgerichteter Mutagenese (random mutagenesis'') Im zweiten Teil dieser Arbeit wurden Hefe(Saccharomyces cerevisiae) Expressionstechnologien angewandt, um StrukturFunktionsanalysen des V2Rezeptors zu erleichtern und Beschränkungen klassischer Mutagenesetechniken zu überwinden. Der V2Wildtyprezeptor und verschiedene GProteinchimären aus Hefe und SäugetierGalpha Untereinheiten wurden in genetisch modifizierten Hefelinien, deren Zellwachstum von effizienter Rezeptor/GProteinKopplung abhängig war, coexprimiert. In diesem System aktiviert produktive Rezeptor/GProteinKopplung den HefeMAPKinase/Pheromon Signaltransduktionsweg. Dies führt zur Transkription des FUS1HIS3Reportergens und somit zur Expression von His3Protein, was den Histidinauxotrophen (his3) Hefelinien ermöglicht, in histidinfreiem Medium zu wachsen (Pausch et al., 1998). Es konnte gezeigt werden, daß heterolog exprimierte V2Rezeptoren weder mit der HefeGProtein alphaUntereinheit (Gpa1p) noch mit einem mutierten Gpa1Protein, in dem die Cterminalen fünf Aminosäuren gegen homologe Galpha q Sequenz ausgetauscht worden waren (Gq5), effizient interagierten. Im Gegensatz dazu erwies sich die Interaktion zwischen dem V2 Rezeptor und einem mutierten Gpa1Protein, dessen Cterminale fünf Aminosäuren die homologe Galpha s Sequenz enthielten (Gs5), als hocheffizient. Diese Beobachtungen zeigten, daß der V2Rezeptor im Hefesystem sein physiologisches Kopplungsprofil beibehielt. Zur weiteren Validierung des Hefeexpressionssystems wurden die G q/11 gekoppelten M 1 , M 3 und M 5 Muskarinrezeptoren und verschiedene mutierte Vasopressin und M 3 Muskarinrezeptoren mit veränderten funktionellen Eigenschaften heterolog in Hefe exprimiert. Funktionelle Analysen zeigten, daß die Wildtyprezeptoren und die verschiedenen Rezeptormutanten in Hefe und Säugetierzellen ähnliche Phänotypen aufwiesen. Um zu untersuchen, weshalb der V2Rezeptor nicht effizient an GProteine der Gq/11 Familie koppelt, sollte der in Hefe exprimierte V2Rezeptor zufallsgerichteter Mutagenese (random mutagenesis'') unterzogen und Mutanten mit veränderten G ProteinKopplungeigenschaften isoliert werden. Im speziellen wurde die i2Schleife untersucht, da eine frühere Studie gezeigt hatte, daß vornehmlich die i2Schleife des V1a Rezeptors für die V1aRezeptor/G q/11 Kopplungsselektivität verantwortlich ist (Liu and Wess, 1996). Mittels zufallsgerichteter Mutagenesetechnik wurde in Hefe eine Bibliothek von V2Rezeptormutanten erzeugt, deren i2Schleife Mutationen mit einer Mutageneserate von ungefähr 10% (auf der Nukleotidebene) enthielt. Anschließend wurden in einem Selektionsverfahren (screen'') 30 000 V2Rezeptormutanten auf ihre Fähigkeit, mit Gq5 zu interagieren, überprüft. Es konnten vier V2Rezeptormutanten isoliert werden, welche effizient an Gq5 (jedoch nicht an HefeGpa1p) koppelten. Funktionelle Untersuchungen mit diesen und anderen mittels zielgerichteter Mutagenese erzeugter V2Rezeptormutanten zeigten, daß die Substitution einer einzigen Aminosäure (Met145) im zentralen Bereich der i2Schleife beträchtliche Auswirkungen auf die Rezeptor/GProteinKopplungsselektivität hatte. Die Fähigkeit des V2Rezeptors, produktiv mit Gq5 zu interagieren, war von der Anwesenheit relativ großer, hydrophober Aminosäuren wie Leucin und Tryptophan abhängig. Austausch von Met145 mit kleinen Aminosäuren wie Glycin oder Alanin erlaubte dem V2Rezeptor nicht, Gq5 zu aktivieren. Interessanterweise interagierten alle V2Rezeptormutanten, die eine Met145 Punktmutation aufwiesen, mit Gs5 ähnlich effizient wie der V2Wildtyprezeptor. Die Unfähigkeit der V2(Met145Gly) und V2(Met145Ala)Rezeptoren, Gq5 zu aktivieren, beruht daher nicht auf einem Faltungsdefizit. Gleichermaßen basierte die Fähigkeit der V2(Met145Trp) und V2(Met145Leu)Rezeptoren, produktiv an Gq5 zu koppeln, nicht auf der Überexpression von Rezeptorprotein. Diese Ergebnisse zeigen, daß die chemische Eigenschaft der Aminosäure an Position 145 die V2Rezeptor/GProtein Kopplungsselektivität reguliert. Interessanterweise befindet sich in allen anderen Subtypen der Vasopressin/OxytocinRezeptorfamilie (V1a, V1b, und Oxytocin Rezeptoren), welche selektiv an GProteine der G q/11 Klasse gekoppelt sind, ein Leucin an der Stelle, die zu Met145 (V2Rezeptorsequenz) homolog ist. Eine der vier ursprünglich isolierten V2Rezeptormutanten enthielt neben verschiedenen Punktmutationen eine Deletion in Position Met145. In detaillierteren zielgerichteten MutageneseStudien wurden zwei V2Rezeptormutanten erzeugt, die alle drei GProteine (Gq5, Gs5 und Gpa1p) aktivieren konnten. Um zu untersuchen, ob ein generelles Verkürzen der i2Schleife um eine Aminosäure der Grund für die beobachtete Rezeptor/GProteinPromiskuität ist, wurden verschiedene V2Rezeptormutanten erzeugt, in denen einzelne Aminosäuren unmittelbar N und Cterminal von Met145 deletiert worden waren. Funktionelle Untersuchungen ergaben, daß die Deletion einzelner Aminosäuren Nterminal von Met145 (Ile141delta, Cys142delta, Arg143delta oder Pro144delta) in V2Rezeptormutanten resultierte, die nicht mit GProteinen interagieren konnten. RadioligandBindungsstudien zeigten, daß diese V2Rezeptormutanten keine V2Liganden binden konnten, was darauf schließen läßt, daß Deletionen einzelner Aminosäuren Nterminal von Met145 zu mißgefalteten Rezeptoren führen. Die Aminosäuren Ile141Pro144 befinden sich am Beginn der i2Schleife, unmittelbar neben der alphahelikalen zytoplasmatischen Verlängerung der dritten Transmembrandomäne (TM III) in der Nähe des hochkonservierten DRY(H)Motivs. Es ist denkbar, daß Aminosäuren innerhalb des Ile141Pro144Segments mit den zytoplasmatischen Abschnitten von TM III und/oder TM V interagieren und diese Wechselwirkungen die Rezeptorstruktur stabilisieren. Im Gegensatz dazu hatten Deletionen unmittelbar C terminal von Met145 (Leu146delta, Ala147delta, Tyr148delta oder Arg149delta) keinerlei Auswirkungen auf die Funktion des V2Rezeptors. Diese Aminosäuren befinden sich im zentralen Bereich der i2Schleife, der nicht mit den transmembranären Domänen des Rezeptorproteins interagieren kann.
Gegenstand dieser Dissertation war das Ermitteln der Verbesserung der peroralen Bioverfügbarkeit Fenofibrat (FFB) durch lipid-basierte Formulierung (LBF). Eine weitere Aufgabe bestand darin, verschiedene analytische Methoden zur Bewertung der Verbesserung der oralen Bioverfügbarkeit von Fenofibrat einzusetzen. Diese schlossen in vitro biorelevante Löslichkeits-, Dispersions-, Auflösungs- und Präzipitationstests ein. Auf Basis der analytischen Ergebnisse wurden dann PBPK-Modelle verwendet, um menschliche Plasmaprofile nach der Verabreichung der FFB-Formulierungen zu simulieren. Die daraus resultierenden in silico-Vorhersagen stimmten mit den in vivo-Beobachtungen überein. Durch Anwendung der Parametersensitivitätsanalyse war es weiterhin möglich, ein mechanistisches Verständnis der beteiligten geschwindigkeitsbegrenzenden Schritte zu erreichen.
Formulierungen auf Lipidbasis können nach dem Pouton-Klassifizierungssytem eingeteilt werden. Typ I Formulierungen bestehen ausschließlich aus Ölen, während am anderen Ende der Skala die Typ IV Formulierung weitestgehend aus Tensiden ist. In dieser Arbeit wurden in erster Linie Lipidformulierungen Typ IIIA und Typ IIIB untersucht.
Es wurde gezeigt, dass Dispersionstests an FFB-Lipidformulierungen am besten unter Verwendung der USP 3-Apparatur durchgeführt werden, da in diesem Apparat die GI-Motilität in vivo am besten reflektiert wird. Um die Hydrodynamik in verschiedenen Auflösungsapparaten zu vergleichen, wurde der Auflösungsversuch von LBF Nr. 1 – Nr. 4 von FFB auch unter Verwendung von USP 2 durchgeführt. Ungeachtet von kompendialen oder biorelevanten Medien führten die meisten dieser Lipidformulierungen zur Auflösung eines Großteils des beladenen Medikaments, im Gegensatz zum unformulierten Fenofibrat, das sich in nüchternem Zustand kaum auflöst. Weiter zeigten die Transfermodellexperimente an den Lipidformulierungen von FFB, dass eine intestinale Präzipitation nach einer Magenauflösung unwahrscheinlich ist.
Durch mathematische Transformation der Noyes-Whitney-Gleichung kann ein Excel-Toolkit zur Berechnung des z-Werts aus in-vitro-Auflösungsprofilen verwendet werden. Die z-Werte werden dann in physiologisch-basierte pharmakokinetische in silico Modelle, STELLA® und Simcyp®, eingesetzt. Anhand der erforderlichen post-absorptiven Parameter kann mithilfe dieser Modelle die Plasma-Arzneistoff-Konzentration nach oraler Verabreichung von verschiedenen Formulierungen vorhergesagt werden. Darüber hinaus ermöglicht der Simcyp®-Simulator eine Reihe von virtuellen Versuchen, die PK-Variabilität vom Wirkstoff in verschiedenen Bevölkerungsgruppen zu bestimmen. Um diese Möglichkeiten für LBF von Fenofibrat zu testen, wurde LBF Nr. 4 modelliert. Das Simulationsergebnis von Simcyp® entsprach dem aus der STELLA®-Software. Weiterhin wurden die Plasmafenofibrinsäure-Konzentrationsprofile von den Modellen genau vorhergesagt. Die Punktschätzwerte für Cmax und AUC, berechnet aus den In-silico und in vivo Plasmaprofilen, lagen sogar im Bereich von 0,8-1,25 für die SMEDDS Lösung und Kapselformulierungen. Diese Übereinstimmung von in vitro-in silico mit in vivo wurde weiterhin durch Berechnung der jeweiligen f2 Faktoren unterstützt.
Basierend auf diesen Ergebnissen scheint es, dass der In-vitro-In-Silico-In-vivo-Ansatz ein nützliches Werkzeug zum Identifizieren und Vergleichen von Beschränkungen der oralen Absorption für Formulierungen auf Lipidbasis und zum Optimieren der Lipidformulierungsentwicklung von schlecht löslichen Arzneimitteln darstellt.
The development of a drug product, beginning with the synthesis of the drug substance through approval for marketing, may take up to 15 years and a total amount of investment of up to half a billion Euro. After the discovery of a potential drug substance, many different investigations have to be performed: e.g. characterization of the physical-chemical properties, the pharmacological and toxicological profile and, especially relevant for this work, the development of the first dosage forms. After achieving these steps, first investigations in human studies can be carried out. After a positive assessment of the benefit to risk ratio, further investigations, such as food effects on the pharmacokinetics, multiple dosing studies and further studies on patients can be implemented. After successfully completing this second part the new drug product can be approved. With broader clinical experience it often becomes apparent that changes in relevant aspects of the formulation of the registered drug product e.g. excipients, concentration of the drug substance or excipient versus drug substance ratio, are necessary to optimise the therapy. This often leads to additional clinical investigations and a new registration, a procedure which is time and cost intensive. A possible way to reduce the financial and time investments, is to establish an appropriate in vivo- in vitro correlation (IVIVC). If it is possible to predict the in vivo performance of a drug product adequately with in vitro methods (dissolutions tests), it will no longer be necessary to perform additional clinical investigations. In this work, IVIVCs were investigated for three different drug substances and several different types of formulations.... ...Results of this work clearly show that successful IVIVCs can be achieved for the fasted state using biorelevant dissolution media. A prerequisite of achieving a good IVIVC is the availability of in vivo data of a reference product (i.v., oral solution or IR) tested within the same group of volunteers as the product of interest. Only with this procedure, one can obtain adequate IVIVCs for drug substances with high inter-individual variability of the plasma concentrations and with high first-pass metabolism. This work also shows that predictions of the in vivo behavior of a modified release dosage form after administration with a high fat meal are more difficult to obtain. This is mainly related to an absence of a medium, which could mimic the situation of the fed stomach adequately. Ensure plus®, which was chosen in this work, failed to simulate the fed stomach adequately in several cases; it suppressed the release of rosiglitazone from lipid formulations and led to rapid disruption of the HPMC-matrix of the 5-ISMN Geomatrix formulations. Future work should be directed towards optimization of the test media in the BioDis apparatus. This work clearly shows the inability of Ensure plus® to predict the in vivo performance of a drug under fed state conditions and indicates that alternative media must be developed. It is known that the pH of the stomach rises up to six after the intake of a meal. During the following hours the pH decreases until reaching the baseline value of approximately 1.8. One possibility of simulating the fed state stomach more precisely will be to divide the overall residence time into 4 different parts: 1. half a hour at pH 6 2. half a hour at pH 4 3. one hour at pH 3 4. two hours at pH 1.8 Another option is not only to modify the pH of the medium, but also to change its composition. During the decomposition of the food contents, the composition of the gastric juice changes, the ionic strength, the buffer capacity and the osmolarity rises, while the pH value decreases. A third possibility will be the addition of enzymes, mainly pepsin, lipases and amylases. Again, the quantity of the enzymes differs during the residence time of the food in the stomach. Highest quantities are expected in the first two hours after food intake and decreases in the remaining two hours. Another issue of this work was an assessment of the two dissolution apparatus, Paddle and BioDis. In general, the choice of the dissolution apparatus should be done primarily with respect to the solubility behavior of the drug substance. For high soluble drugs the USP apparatus II, Paddle, is sufficient (e.g. diltiazem or 5-ISMN). In cases of a poorly soluble drug (rosiglitazone), where the release strongly depends on the medium used, the USP apparatus III (BioDis) is favored, due to the advantage of simulating the GI-tract with a gradient of different dissolution media, each simulating one part of the GI-tract. In summary, the results of this work indicate that it is acurrently possible to predict fasted state behavior of a variety of controlled release products using in vitro tests. Prognoses was also made in terms of predicting food effects on the behavior of controlled release products, although it is clear that the media compositions will have to be revised to establish releiable predictive methods for the fed state.
Drug target 5-lipoxygenase : a link between cellular enzyme regulation and molecular pharmacology
(2005)
Leukotriene (LT) sind bioaktive Lipidmediatoren, die in einer Vielzahl von Entzündungskrankheiten wie z.B. Asthma, Psoriasis, Arthritis oder allergische Rhinitis involviert sind. Des Weiteren spielen LT in der Pathogenese von Erkrankungen wie Krebs, Osteoarthritis oder Atherosklerose eine Rolle. Die 5-Lipoxygenase (5-LO) ist das Enzym, das für die Bildung von LT verantwortlich ist. Aufgrund der physiologischen Eigenschaften der LT, ist die Entwicklung von potentiellen Arzneistoffen, welche die 5-LO als Zielstruktur besitzen, von erheblichem Interesse. Die Aktivität der 5-LO wird in vitro durch Ca2+, ATP, Phosphatidylcholin und Lipidhydroperoxide (LOOH) und durch die p38-abhängige MK-2/3 5-LO bestimmt. Inhibitorstudien weisen darauf hin, dass der MEK1/2-Signalweg ebenfalls in vivo an der 5-LO Aktivierung beteiligt ist. Hauptziel dieser Arbeit war es zu untersuchen, welche Rolle der MEK1/2-Signalweg bei der Aktivierung der 5-LO besitzt und welchen Einfluss der 5-LO Aktivierungsweg auf die Wirksamkeit potentieller Inhibitoren hat. „In gel kinase“ und „In vitro kinase“ Untersuchungen zeigten, dass die 5-LO ein Substrat für die Extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) und MK-2/3 darstellt. Der Zusatz von mehrfach ungesättigten Fettsäuren (UFA), wie AA oder Ölsäure, verstärkte den Phosphorylierungsgrad der 5-LO sowohl durch ERK1/2 als auch durch MK-2/3. Die genannten Kinasen sind demnach auch für die 5-LO Aktivierung durch natürliche Stimuli verantwortlich, die den zellulären Ca2+-Spiegel kaum beeinflussen. Daraus ist ersichtlich, dass die Phosphorylierung der 5-LO durch ERK1/2 und/oder MK-2/3 einen alternativen Aktivierungsmechanismus neben Ca2+ darstellt. Ursprünglich wurden Nonredox-5-LO-Inhibitoren als kompetitive Wirkstoffe entwickelt, die mit AA um die Bindung an die katalytische Domäne der 5-LO konkurrieren. Vertreter dieser Inhibitoren, wie ZM230487 und L-739,010, zeigen eine potente Hemmung der LT-Biosynthese in verschiedenen Testsystemen. Sie scheiterten jedoch in klinischen Studien. In dieser Arbeit konnten wir zeigen, dass die Wirksamkeit dieser Inhibitoren vom Aktivierungsweg der 5-LO abhängig ist. Verglichen mit 5-LO Aktivität, die durch den unphysiologischen Stimulus Ca2+-Ionophor induziert wird, erfordert die Hemmung zellstress-induzierter Aktivität eine 10- bis 100-fach höhere Konzentration der Nonredox-5-LO-Inhibitoren. Die nicht-phosphorylierbare 5-LO Mutante (Ser271Ala/Ser663Ala) war wesentlich sensitiver gegenüber Nonredox-Inhibitoren als der Wildtyp, wenn das Enzym durch 5-LO Kinasen aktiviert wurde. Somit zeigen diese Ergebnisse, dass, im Gegensatz zu Ca2+, die 5-LO Aktivierung mittels Phosphorylierung die Wirksamkeit der Nonredox-Inhibitoren deutlich verringert. Des Weiteren wurde das pharmakologische Profil des neuen 5-LO Inhibitors CJ-13,610 mittels verschiedener in vitro-Testsysteme charakterisiert. In intakten PMNL, die durch Ca2+-Ionophor stimuliert wurden, hemmte die Substanz die 5-LO Produktbildung mit einem IC50 von 70 nM. Durch Zugabe von exogener AA, wird die Wirkung vermindert und der IC50 des Inhibitors steigt an. Dies deutet auf eine kompetitive Wirkweise hin. Wie die bekannten Nonredox-Inhibitoren, verliert auch CJ-13,610 seine Wirkung bei erhöhtem zellulärem Peroxidspiegel. Der Inhibitor CJ-13,610 zeigt jedoch keine Abhängigkeit vom Aktivierungsweg der 5-LO. Grundsätzlich ist es also von fundamentaler Bedeutung bei der Entwicklung von neuen Arzneistoffen, die zellulären Zusammenhänge, insbesondere die Regulierung der Aktivität von Enzymen, zu kennen. Wie in dieser Arbeit gezeigt, hat die Phosphorylierung der 5-LO einen starken Einfluss auf die Regulation der 5-LO Aktivität und eine elementare Wirkung auf die Hemmung des Enzyms durch verschiedene Wirkstoffe.
Curcumin, the active constituent of Curcuma longa L. (family Zingiberaceae), has gained increasing interest because of its anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, and anti-rheumatic properties associated with good tolerability and safety up to very high doses of 12 g. Nanoscaled micellar formulations on the base of Tween 80 represent a promising strategy to overcome its low oral bioavailability. We therefore aimed to investigate the uptake and transepithelial transport of native curcumin (CUR) vs. a nanoscaled micellar formulation (Sol-CUR) in a Caco-2 cell model. Sol-CUR afforded a higher flux than CUR (39.23 vs. 4.98 μg min−1 cm−2, respectively). This resulted in a higher Papp value of 2.11 × 10−6 cm/s for Sol-CUR compared to a Papp value of 0.56 × 10−6 cm/s for CUR. Accordingly a nearly 9.5 fold higher amount of curcumin was detected on the basolateral side at the end of the transport experiments after 180 min with Sol-CUR compared to CUR. The determined 3.8-fold improvement in the permeability of curcumin is in agreement with an up to 185-fold increase in the AUC of curcumin observed in humans following the oral administration of the nanoscaled micellar formulation compared to native curcumin. The present study demonstrates that the enhanced oral bioavailability of micellar curcumin formulations is likely a result of enhanced absorption into and increased transport through small intestinal epithelial cells.
During the past several years, ceramide has emerged as an important second messenger triggering cell responses including proliferation, differentiation, growth arrest and apoptosis. This thesis has focused on the regulation of neutral ceramidase which critically determines, in concert with ceramide generating sphingomyelinases, the intracellular ceramide levels. In the first part it is reported that besides a rapid and transient increase in neutral sphingomyelinase activity a second delayed peak of activation occurs after hours of IL-1beta treatment. This second phase of activation is first detectable after 2 h of treatment, and steadily increases over the next two hours reaching maximal values after 4 h. In parallel, a pronounced increase in neutral ceramidase activity is observed, which accounts for a constant or even decreased level of ceramide after long-term IL-1beta treatment, despite continuous sphingomyelinase activation. The increase in neutral ceramidase activity is due to expressional up-regulation, as detected by an increase in mRNA level and enhanced de novo protein synthesis. The increase of neutral ceramidase protein levels and activity can be blocked dosedependently by the p38- mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38-MAPK) inhibitor, SB 202190, whereas the classical MAPK pathway inhibitor U0126, and the PKC inhibitor Ro 31-8220 were ineffective. Moreover, co-treatment of cells for 24 h with IL-1~ and SB 202190 leads to an increase in ceramide formation. Interestingly, IL-1beta-stimulated neutral ceramidase activation is not reduced in mesangial cells isolated from mice deficient in MAPK-activated protein kinase 2 (MAPKAPK-2), which is one possible downstream substrate of the p38-MAPK, thus suggesting that the p38-MAPK-mediated induction of neutral ceramidase occurs independently of MAPKAPK-2. The results suggest a biphasic regulation of sphingomyelin hydrolysis in cytokine-treated mesangial cells with a delayed de novo synthesis of neutral ceramidase counteracting sphingomyelinase activity and apoptosis. Neutral ceramidase may thus represent a novel cytoprotective enzyme for mesangial cells exposed to inflammatory stress conditions. In a second part, the effect of NO on neutral ceramidase was studied. Ceramide levels are strongly increased in a delayed fashion by stimulation of renal mesangial cells with NO. This effect is due to a dual action of NO, comprising an activation of sphingomyelinases and an inhibition of ceramidase activity. The inhibition of neutral ceramidase activity correlates with the decrease of neutral ceramidase protein. A complete loss of neutral ceramidase protein is obtained after 24h of NO stimUlation. Moreover, the NO-induced degradation is reversed by the protein kinase C (PKC) activator, 12-0-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA) , but also by the physiological PKC activators platelet-derived growth factor-BB (PDGF-BB), angiotensin II and ATP, resulting in a normalisation of neutral ceramidase protein as well as activity. In vivo phosphorylation studies using 32Pj-labelled mesangial cells, reveal that TPA, PDGF-BB, angiotensin II and ATP trigger an increased phosphorylation of the neutral ceramidase, which is blocked by the broad-spectrum PKC inhibitor Ro-31 8220, but not by CGP 41251, which has a preferential action on Ca2+-dependent PKC isoforms, thus suggesting the involvement of a Ca2+-independent PKC isoenzyme. In vitro phosphorylation assays using recombinant PKC isoenzymes and neutral ceramidase immunoprecipitated from unstimulated mesangial cells, show that particularly the PKC-alpha isoform, and to a lesser extent the PKC-a isoform, are efficient in directly phosphorylating neutral ceramidase. The data show that NO is able to induce degradation of neutral ceramidase thereby promoting accumulation of ceramide in the cell. This effect is reversed by PKC activation, most probably by the PKC-delta isoenzyme, which may directly phosphorylate and thereby, prevent neutral ceramidase degradation. In the third chapter it is demonstrated that the NO-triggered degradation of neutral ceramidase involves activation of the ubiquitin/proteasome complex. The specific proteasome inhibitor, lactacystin, completely reverses the NO-induced degradation of ceramidase protein and neutral ceramidase activity. As a consequence, the cellular amount of ceramide, which drastically increases by NO stimulation, is reduced in the presence of lactacystin. Furthermore, ubiquitinated neutral ceramidase accumulates after NO stimulation. The data clearly show that the ubiquitin/proteasome complex is an important determinant of neutral ceramidase activity and thereby regulates the availability of ceramide. In a last part, the cellular localisation of neutral ceramidase was investigated using green fluorescent protein (GFP) as fusion protein to examine cellular distribution and translocation of neutral ceramidase. Unstimulated HEK 293 cells reveal after transient transfection experiments that neutral ceramidase is preferentially localized in the cytoplasm. PKC activation led to an accumulation of neutral ceramidase at the nuclear membrane. In summary, this work demonstrates that the neutral ceramidase is a fine regulated protein that plays a critical role in regulating intracellular ceramide levels and thereby the cell's fate to undergo apoptosis or survive. Regulation of neutral ceramidase can be achieved on all levels, i.e. on the mRNA level, the protein level or posttranslationally by phosphorylation and subcellular translocation. Future work will reveal whether neutral ceramidase can serve as a therapeutic target in the development of novel antiinflammatory and anti-tumour drugs.
Most molecular cancer therapies act on protein targets but data on the proteome status of patients and cellular models for proteome‐guided pre‐clinical drug sensitivity studies are only beginning to emerge. Here, we profiled the proteomes of 65 colorectal cancer (CRC) cell lines to a depth of > 10,000 proteins using mass spectrometry. Integration with proteomes of 90 CRC patients and matched transcriptomics data defined integrated CRC subtypes, highlighting cell lines representative of each tumour subtype. Modelling the responses of 52 CRC cell lines to 577 drugs as a function of proteome profiles enabled predicting drug sensitivity for cell lines and patients. Among many novel associations, MERTK was identified as a predictive marker for resistance towards MEK1/2 inhibitors and immunohistochemistry of 1,074 CRC tumours confirmed MERTK as a prognostic survival marker. We provide the proteomic and pharmacological data as a resource to the community to, for example, facilitate the design of innovative prospective clinical trials.
Although the Nobel Prize for the discovery of nitric oxide (NO) dates back almost 20 years now, the knowledge about cGMP signaling is still constantly increasing. It looks even so that our understanding of the role of the soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC) and particulate guanylyl cyclase (pGC) in health and disease is in many aspects at the beginning and far from being understood. This holds even true for the therapeutic impact of innovative drugs acting on both the NO/sGC and the pGC pathways. Since cGMP, as second messenger, is involved in the pathogenesis of numerous diseases within the cardiovascular, pulmonary, renal, and endocrine systems and also plays a role in neuronal, sensory, and tumor processes, drug applications might be quite broad. On the 8th International Conference on cGMP, held in Bamberg, Germany, world leading experts came together to discuss these topics. All aspects of cGMP research from the basic understanding of cGMP signaling to clinical applicability were discussed in depth. In addition, present and future therapeutic applications of cGMP-modulating pharmacotherapy were presented (http://www.cyclicgmp.net/index.html).
Activation of Mitochondrial complex II-dependent respiration is beneficial for α-Synucleinopathies
(2015)
Parkinson’s disease and dementia with Lewy bodies are major challenges in research and clinical medicine world-wide and contribute to the most common neurodegenerative disorders. Previously, specific mitochondrial polymorphisms have been found to enhance clearance of amyloid-β from the brain of APP-transgenic mice leading to beneficial clinical outcome. It has been discussed whether specific mitochondrial alterations contribute to disease progression or even prevent toxic peptide deposition, as seen in many neurodegenerative diseases. Here, we investigated α-synuclein-transgenic C57BL/6J mice with the A30P mutation, and a novel A30P C57BL/6J mouse model with three mitochondrial DNA polymorphisms in the ND3, COX3 and mtRNAArg genes, as found in the inbred NOD/LtJ mouse strain. We were able to detect that the new model has increased mitochondrial complex II-respiration which occurs in parallel to neuronal loss and improved motor performance, although it exhibits higher amounts of high molecular weight species of α-synuclein. High molecular weight aggregates of different peptides are controversially discussed in the light of neurodegeneration. A favourable hypothesis states that high molecular weight species are protective and of minor importance for the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders as compared to the extreme neurotoxic monomers and oligomers. Summarising, our results point to a potentially protective and beneficial effect of specific mitochondrial polymorphisms which cause improved mitochondrial complex II-respiration in α-synucleinopathies, an effect that could be exploited further for pharmaceutical interventions.
Many diseases have been described to be associated with inflammatory processes. The currently available anti-inflammatory drug therapy is often not successful or causes intolerable side effects. Thus, new anti-inflammatory substances are still urgently needed. Plants were the first source of remedies in the history of mankind. Since their chemical characterization in the 19th century, herbal bioactive compounds have fueled drug development. Also, nowadays, new plant-derived agents continuously enrich our drug arsenal (e.g., vincristine, galantamine, and artemisinin). The number of new, pharmacologically active herbal ingredients, in particular that of anti-inflammatory compounds, rises continuously. The major obstacle in this field is the translation of preclinical knowledge into evidence-based clinical progress. Human trials of good quality are often missing or, when available, are frequently not suitable to really prove a therapeutical value. This minireview will summarize the current situation of 6 very prominent plant-derived anti-inflammatory compounds: curcumin, colchicine, resveratrol, capsaicin, epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG), and quercetin. We will highlight their clinical potential and/or pinpoint an overestimation. Moreover, we will sum up the planned trials in order to provide insights into the inflammatory disorders that are hypothesized to be beneficially influenced by the compound.
The bile acid activated transcription factor farnesoid X receptor (FXR) regulates numerous metabolic processes and is a rising target for the treatment of hepatic and metabolic disorders. FXR agonists have revealed efficacy in treating non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), diabetes and dyslipidemia. Here we characterize imatinib as first-in-class allosteric FXR modulator and report the development of an optimized descendant that markedly promotes agonist induced FXR activation in a reporter gene assay and FXR target gene expression in HepG2 cells. Differential effects of imatinib on agonist-induced bile salt export protein and small heterodimer partner expression suggest that allosteric FXR modulation could open a new avenue to gene-selective FXR modulators.
Reliable communication in the central nervous system requires the precise control of the duration and the intensity of neurotransmitter action at specific molecular targets. After their release at the synapse, neurotransmitters activate pre- and/or postsynaptic receptors. To terminate synaptic transmission, neurotransmitters are in turn inactivated by either enzymatic degradation or active uptake into neuronal and/or glial cells by neurotransmitter transporters. In the present study, two types of membrane proteins involved in transcellular signal transduction were investigated, the P2X receptors, which are ATP-gated ion channels and the glutamate transporters of the EAAT family. The first part of this study is concerned with the targeting and anchoring of P2X receptors at specific locations. P2X receptors play a role of fast excitatory neurotransmission to extracellular ATP in both the peripheral and central nervous system. For several ligand-gated ion channel, like glycine receptors or nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, it is known that specific binding proteins exist, which are involved in receptor trafficking and anchoring of the receptors at appropriate sites on the synapse. Within the P2X family, amino acid homology is scattered over the protein sequence excepted of the cytoplasmic C-terminal tails, which do not share significant sequence similarity, indicating that they might provide peculiar properties to the respective receptor isoforms. Using GST fusion proteins containing the C terminal end of the P2X2A, P2X5 and P2X7 subunits as baits, ßIII tubulin was identified by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry as a direct interacting partner of P2X2A. ßIII tubulin did not interact with P2X5 nor with P2X7. The tubulin binding motif of P2X2A could be confined to a 42 amino acid long region ranging from amino acid 371 to 412 of the complete P2X2A subunit. This domain, which includes a total of six serine residues and twelve proline residues, interestingly overlaps to a significant extent with a 69 amino acid long sequence, which is lacking in P2X2B, a splice variant of P2X2A. P2X2B receptors are known to desensitize - significantly faster than P2X2A receptors. The interaction of the P2X2A receptor with ßIII tubulin may contribute to receptor desensitization as well as tethering of the P2X2A receptor at specialized regions of the cell. In a second part of this work, the oligomeric state of two distantly related glutamate transporters, the human glial glutamate transporter hEAAT2, and the glutamate transporter ecgltP of E.coli was determined. Excitatory amino acid transporters (EAATs) buffer and remove synaptically released L-glutamate and maintain its concentration below neurotoxic levels. Mammalian glutamate transporter subunits are known to form homomultimers, but controversial numbers of subunits per transporter complex have been reported, ranging from 2-5. Both hEAAT2 and ecgltP proteins expressed at high levels in Xenopus laevis oocytes, from which they were purified in a [35S]methionine-labeled form under nondenaturing conditions by metal affinity chromatography. Blue native PAGE analysis revealed that both the hEAAT2 and ecgltP transporters exist exclusively as homogenous populations of homotrimers in Xenopus oocytes. The trimeric structure was corroborated by chemical crosslinking. Also, ecgltP purified as a recombinant protein from its natural host E.coli migrated as a trimeric protein on blue native PAGE gels. The conservation of the quaternary structure from prokaryotes to mammals assigns an important functional role to the trimeric structure. Glutamate transporters are known to exhibit a dual mode of operation by functioning both as glutamate Na+/K+/H+ co-transporters and as anion channels. It is intriguing to speculate that the EAAT monomer is responsible for the secondary active transport of glutamate, whereas a barrel-like arrangement of the three subunits forms a central anion pore mediating anion conductivity.
Gene therapy is a promising therapeutic strategy that emerged from the attractive idea of targeting therapy at the molecular level. For many patients who suffer from genetic and acquired diseases that cannot be effectively treated by conventional treatment approaches gene therapy remains a huge hope of cure in spite of the hurdles regarding efficacy and safety that need to be overcome. The development of efficient gene transfer vehicles, mainly retroviral vectors, led to the first successful gene therapy trial, to treat patients suffering from X-linked severe combined immunodeficiency syndrome (X-SCID) using gene modified stem cells (Hacein-Bey-Abina, Le Deist et al. 2002). Despite the success of this trial, it revealed the danger of retroviral insertional mutagenesis as a major adverse event of gene therapy using gene-modified stem cells (Hacein-Bey-Abina, von Kalle et al. 2003). In contrast to stem cells, T cells are relatively resistant to insertional mutagenesis and transformation even after transduction with potent oncogenes using retroviral vectors (Newrzela, Cornils et al. 2008). However, mature T cells can self-renew, proliferate and survive for long periods. These criteria are supposed to render T cells prone to transformation. Therefore, the questions of mature T cells transformability and the control mechanism limiting their transformation are still elusive.
Peptidyl arginine deiminase 4 (PAD4) is a nuclear enzyme that converts arginine residues to citrulline. Although increasingly implicated in inflammatory disease and cancer, the mechanism of action of PAD4 and its functionally relevant pathways remains unclear. E2F transcription factors are a family of master regulators that coordinate gene expression during cellular proliferation and diverse cell fates. We show that E2F-1 is citrullinated by PAD4 in inflammatory cells. Citrullination of E2F-1 assists its chromatin association, specifically to cytokine genes in granulocyte cells. Mechanistically, citrullination augments binding of the BET (bromodomain and extra-terminal domain) family bromodomain reader BRD4 (bromodomain-containing protein 4) to an acetylated domain in E2F-1, and PAD4 and BRD4 coexist with E2F-1 on cytokine gene promoters. Accordingly, the combined inhibition of PAD4 and BRD4 disrupts the chromatin-bound complex and suppresses cytokine gene expression. In the murine collagen-induced arthritis model, chromatin-bound E2F-1 in inflammatory cells and consequent cytokine expression are diminished upon small-molecule inhibition of PAD4 and BRD4, and the combined treatment is clinically efficacious in preventing disease progression. Our results shed light on a new transcription-based mechanism that mediates the inflammatory effect of PAD4 and establish the interplay between citrullination and acetylation in the control of E2F-1 as a regulatory interface for driving inflammatory gene expression.
Peptidyl arginine deiminase 4 (PAD4) is a nuclear enzyme that converts arginine residues to citrulline. Although increasingly implicated in inflammatory disease and cancer, the mechanism of action of PAD4 and its functionally relevant pathways remains unclear. E2F transcription factors are a family of master regulators that coordinate gene expression during cellular proliferation and diverse cell fates. We show that E2F-1 is citrullinated by PAD4 in inflammatory cells. Citrullination of E2F-1 assists its chromatin association, specifically to cytokine genes in granulocyte cells. Mechanistically, citrullination augments binding of the BET (bromodomain and extra-terminal domain) family bromodomain reader BRD4 (bromodomain-containing protein 4) to an acetylated domain in E2F-1, and PAD4 and BRD4 coexist with E2F-1 on cytokine gene promoters. Accordingly, the combined inhibition of PAD4 and BRD4 disrupts the chromatin-bound complex and suppresses cytokine gene expression. In the murine collagen-induced arthritis model, chromatin-bound E2F-1 in inflammatory cells and consequent cytokine expression are diminished upon small-molecule inhibition of PAD4 and BRD4, and the combined treatment is clinically efficacious in preventing disease progression. Our results shed light on a new transcription-based mechanism that mediates the inflammatory effect of PAD4 and establish the interplay between citrullination and acetylation in the control of E2F-1 as a regulatory interface for driving inflammatory gene expression.
In this thesis I have investigated the regulation of eicosanoid synthesizing-enzymes by cannabinoid receptor agonists. Rat renal mesangial cells were used as a model system. I could show that all three (CB1, CB2, and GPR55) cannabinoid receptors are expressed on the mRNA level in rat renal mesangial cells – but with differing expression profiles. The CB1 and GPR55 receptors are expressed in comparable amounts, whereas the CB2 receptor is considerably less expressed than the CB1 and the GPR55 receptors. Furthermore I could show that stimulation of renal mesangial cells with CB1 receptor agonists, such as R(+)MA or ACEA, increased IL-1β-induced cPLA2, sPLA2-IIa, and COX2 protein and mRNA expression which subsequently led to an enhanced IL-1β-induced PGE2 formation. Additionally, the IL-1β- induced sPLA2-IIa promoter activity was also increased by CB1 receptor stimulation. Besides the modulated expression of the eicosanoid synthesizing enzymes, I could show that CB1 agonists also led to an increase of IL-1β-induced iNOS expression and subsequent NO formation. In contrast, stimulation with CB2 selective agonists led to a decrease in IL-1β- induced sPLA2-IIa protein expression and PGE2 formation. Accordingly, the IL-1β-induced sPLA2-IIa promoter activity was also reduced by CB2 receptor agonists. IL-1β-induced iNOS expression and subsequent NO formation were not influenced by CB2 recptor activation. Matching the results I obtained with CB1 receptor agonists on IL-1β-induced PGE2 formation, I could observe an increased cPLA2 protein and mRNA expression with a subsequent increase in IL-1β-induced PGE2 formation by GPR55 stimulation. Stimulation with THC, an unselective CB agonist, increased the IL-1β-induced sPLA2-IIa protein expression and subsequently led to an enhanced IL-1β-induced PGE2 formation. Subjecting the cells to higher THC concentrations surprisingly led to a reduction of the IL-1b-induced sPLA2-IIa protein expression and PGE2 formation. A possible explanation may be the differential expression of the three CB receptors. At low concentrations THC may predominantly activate CB1 and GPR55 and with increasing concentration CB2 receptors may also be activated, slightly reversing the enhancing effect. Moreover, I could show that the CB1 receptor stimulation mediated phosphorylation and hence the activation of ERK1/2 MAPK. Additionally to ERK1/2, there was also a phosphorylation and activation of NFkB observed by CB1 receptor stimulation. In my thesis I could show for the first time that PPARα was activated by IL-1β in rMC. The IL-1β-induced PPARα promoter activity was completely inhibited by addition of the CB2 receptor agonist, JWH015. These findings were confirmed by inhibition of the IL-1β-induced PGE2 formation by a PPARα antagonist (MK-886). In summary, I could show that activation of CB1 receptors in our system led to a worsening of an inflammatory condition, whereas activation of the CB2 receptors led to the complete opposite; namely a reduction of the inflammatory response by reducing the sPLA2-IIa expression and PGE2 formation. GPR55 activation did not display any alteration of inflammatory conditions, since the classical inflammatory pathway was not influenced.
Carma-1 is required for B cell receptor-/CD40- and T cell receptor-/CD28-induced B- and T-cell activation via JNK and NF-betaB. In B cells, Carma-1 becomes phosphorylated by PKCbeta, leading to its oligomerization. Subsequent Bcl10 binding induces IKKbeta-activation and, thereby, canonical NF-KB signalling. Despite these findings it is still unknown how exactly Carma-1 is connected to the plasma membrane and to the IKK-complex. Therefore, we purified Carma-1 complexes from mouse CH12 B cells using anti-Carma-1 affinity columns. Mass spectrometric analyses of the column eluates demonstrated the presence of Carma-1 as well as three previously uncharacterized adaptor proteins in B cells, one of which was the Trk-fused gene (Tfg), an adaptor protein containing PB1 and coiledcoil domains. Whereas Tfg was originally identified as fusion partner of oncogenic Trk tyrosine kinase mutants, the normal cellular homologue of Tfg has so far not been described in B cells. However, Tfg has been shown in other systems to interact with IKKgamma and to enhance TNFinduced NF-KB activation. Tfg and Carma-1 co-localized at the plasma membrane and perinuclear structures in B cells. We further corroborated the interactions of Tfg, IKKgamma and Carma-1 by Blue Native gel electrophoresis, where Carma-1 and Tfg formed a 0.7–1 MDa complex. Ectopic expression of Tfg increased the molecular mass of IKKgamma complexes, fused IKKgamma, Bcl10 and Carma-1 complexes to a ~2 MDa complex, and increased basal and CD40-induced canonical activity of NF-KB and IKKbeta. In contrast, shRNA-mediated silencing of Tfg decreased CD40-induced IKKbeta activity. Very interestingly, in primary B cells, highest expression of Tfg was detected in marginal zone and B1 B cells, and Carma-1 and Tfg formed complexes in these B cells. Since Carma-1 is required for marginal zone B cell and B1 B cell development, we suggest that a functional interaction between Carma-1 and Tfg contributes to development and maintenance of these cells by means of canonical NF-KB signals.
Epigenetic marks critically control gene expression and thus the cellular activity state. The functions of many epigenetic modifiers in the vascular system have not yet been studied. We screened for histone modifiers in endothelial cells and observed a fairly high expression of the histone plant homeodomain finger protein 8 (PHF8). Given its high expression, we hypothesize that this histone demethylase is important for endothelial cell function. Overexpression of PHF8 catalyzed the removal of methyl-groups from histone 3 lysine 9 (H3K9) and H4K20, whereas knockdown of the enzyme increased H3K9 methylation. Knockdown of PHF8 by RNAi also attenuated endothelial proliferation and survival. As a functional readout endothelial migration and tube formation was studied. PHF8 siRNA attenuated the capacity for migration and developing of capillary-like structures. Given the impact of PHF8 on cell cycle genes, endothelial E2F transcription factors were screened, which led to the identification of the gene repressor E2F4 to be controlled by PHF8. Importantly, PHF8 maintains E2F4 but not E2F1 expression in endothelial cells. Consistently, chromatin immunoprecipitation revealed that PHF8 reduces the H3K9me2 level at the E2F4 transcriptional start site, demonstrating a direct function of PHF8 in endothelial E2F4 gene regulation. Conclusion: PHF8 by controlling E2F4 expression maintains endothelial function.
Cysteinyl leukotriene receptor 1 antagonists (CysLT1RA) are frequently used as add-on medication for the treatment of asthma. Recently, these compounds have shown protective effects in cardiovascular diseases. This prompted us to investigate their influence on soluble epoxide hydrolase (sEH) and peroxisome proliferator activated receptor (PPAR) activities, two targets known to play an important role in CVD and the metabolic syndrome. Montelukast, pranlukast and zafirlukast inhibited human sEH with IC50 values of 1.9, 14.1, and 0.8 μM, respectively. In contrast, only montelukast and zafirlukast activated PPARγ in the reporter gene assay with EC50 values of 1.17 μM (21.9% max. activation) and 2.49 μM (148% max. activation), respectively. PPARα and δ were not affected by any of the compounds. The activation of PPARγ was further investigated in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Analysis of lipid accumulation, mRNA and protein expression of target genes as well as PPARγ phosphorylation revealed that montelukast was not able to induce adipocyte differentiation. In contrast, zafirlukast triggered moderate lipid accumulation compared to rosiglitazone and upregulated PPARγ target genes. In addition, we found that montelukast and zafirlukast display antagonistic activities concerning recruitment of the PPARγ cofactor CBP upon ligand binding suggesting that both compounds act as PPARγ modulators. In addition, zafirlukast impaired the TNFα triggered phosphorylation of PPARγ2 on serine 273. Thus, zafirlukast is a novel dual sEH/PPARγ modulator representing an excellent starting point for the further development of this compound class.
Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is characterized by the accumulation of a large number of abnormal, immature blast cells. Recently, histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDIs) received considerable interest on the ground of their ability to overcome the differentiation block in these leukemic blasts regardless of the primary genetic alteration, an effect achieved either alone or in combination with differentiating agents, such as all-trans retinoic acid (t-RA). Valproic acid (VPA), a potent HDI, is now under clinical evaluation owing to its potent differentiation effect on transformed hematopoietic progenitor cells and leukemic blasts from AML patients. Conversely, in a clinical study by Bug et al., the favorable effects of the combination treatment with t-RA/VPA in advanced acute myeloid leukemia patients were reported to be most likely due to an enhancement of nonleukemic myelopoiesis and the suppression of malignant hematopoiesis rather than enforced differentiation of the leukemic cells. Based on the hypothesis that VPA influences normal hematopoiesis, the effect of chromatin modeling through VPA on HSCs was investigated with respect to differentiation, proliferation as well as self-renewal in the present study. It has been shown that valproic acid increases both proliferation and self-renewal of HSC. It accelerates cell cycle progression of HSC accompanied by a down-regulation of p21cip-1/waf-1. Furthermore, valproic acid inhibits GSK3B by phosphorylation on Ser9 accompanied by an activation of the Wnt signaling pathway as well as by an up-regulation of HoxB4, a target gene of Wnt signaling. Both are known to directly stimulate the proliferation of HSC and to expand the HSC pool. To sum up, valproic acid, a potent histone deacetylase inhibitor known to induce differentiation and/or apoptosis in leukemic blasts, stimulates the proliferation and self-renewal of hematopoietic stem cells. Therefore, the data reported in this study suggest to reconsider the role of histone deacetylase inhibitors from a differentiation inducer to a coadjuvant factor for increasing the response to conventional therapy in acute myeloid leukemia.
Mitochondria are involved in the aging processes that ultimately lead to neurodegeneration and the development of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). A healthy lifestyle, including a diet rich in antioxidants and polyphenols, represents one strategy to protect the brain and to prevent neurodegeneration. We recently reported that a stabilized hexanic rice bran extract (RBE) rich in vitamin E and polyphenols (but unsuitable for human consumption) has beneficial effects on mitochondrial function in vitro and in vivo (doi:10.1016/j.phrs.2013.06.008, 10.3233/JAD-132084). To enable the use of RBE as food additive, a stabilized ethanolic extract has been produced. Here, we compare the vitamin E profiles of both extracts and their effects on mitochondrial function (ATP concentrations, mitochondrial membrane potential, mitochondrial respiration and mitochondrial biogenesis) in PC12 cells. We found that vitamin E contents and the effects of both RBE on mitochondrial function were similar. Furthermore, we aimed to identify components responsible for the mitochondria-protective effects of RBE, but could not achieve a conclusive result. α-Tocotrienol and possibly also γ-tocotrienol, α-tocopherol and δ-tocopherol might be involved, but hitherto unknown components of RBE or a synergistic effect of various components might also play a role in mediating RBE’s beneficial effects on mitochondrial function.
In large models of neuronal cell death, there is a tight correlation between Cdk5 deregulation and cell-cycle dysfunction. However, pathways that link Cdk5 to the cell cycle during neuronal death are still unclear. We have investigated the molecular events that precede p25/Cdk5-triggered neuronal death using a neuronal cell line that allows inducible p25 expression. In this system, no sign of apoptosis was seen before 24 hours of p25 induction. Thus, at that time, cell-cycle-regulatory proteins were analysed by immunoblotting and some of them showed a significant deregulation. Interestingly, after time-course experiments, the earliest feature correlated with p25 expression was the phosphorylation of the retinoblastoma protein (Rb). Indeed, this phosphorylation was observed 6 hours after p25 induction and was abolished in the presence of a Cdk5 inhibitor, roscovitine, which does not inhibit the usual Rb cyclin-D kinases Cdk4 and Cdk6. Furthermore, analyses of levels and subcellular localization of Cdk-related cyclins did not reveal any change following Cdk5 activation, arguing for a direct effect of Cdk5 activity on Rb protein. This latter result was clearly demonstrated by in vitro kinase assays showing that the p25-Cdk5 complex in our cell system phosphorylates Rb directly without the need for any intermediary kinase activity. Hence, Rb might be an appropriate candidate that connects Cdk5 to cell-cycle deregulation during neuronal cell death.
The adaptor molecule stimulator of IFN genes (STING) is central to production of type I IFNs in response to infection with DNA viruses and to presence of host DNA in the cytosol. Excessive release of type I IFNs through STING-dependent mechanisms has emerged as a central driver of several interferonopathies, including systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), Aicardi–Goutières syndrome (AGS), and stimulator of IFN genes-associated vasculopathy with onset in infancy (SAVI). The involvement of STING in these diseases points to an unmet need for the development of agents that inhibit STING signaling. Here, we report that endogenously formed nitro-fatty acids can covalently modify STING by nitro-alkylation. These nitro-alkylations inhibit STING palmitoylation, STING signaling, and subsequently, the release of type I IFN in both human and murine cells. Furthermore, treatment with nitro-fatty acids was sufficient to inhibit production of type I IFN in fibroblasts derived from SAVI patients with a gain-of-function mutation in STING. In conclusion, we have identified nitro-fatty acids as endogenously formed inhibitors of STING signaling and propose for these lipids to be considered in the treatment of STING-dependent inflammatory diseases.
We present a computational method for the reaction-based de novo design of drug-like molecules. The software DOGS (Design of Genuine Structures) features a ligand-based strategy for automated ‘in silico’ assembly of potentially novel bioactive compounds. The quality of the designed compounds is assessed by a graph kernel method measuring their similarity to known bioactive reference ligands in terms of structural and pharmacophoric features. We implemented a deterministic compound construction procedure that explicitly considers compound synthesizability, based on a compilation of 25'144 readily available synthetic building blocks and 58 established reaction principles. This enables the software to suggest a synthesis route for each designed compound. Two prospective case studies are presented together with details on the algorithm and its implementation. De novo designed ligand candidates for the human histamine H4 receptor and γ-secretase were synthesized as suggested by the software. The computational approach proved to be suitable for scaffold-hopping from known ligands to novel chemotypes, and for generating bioactive molecules with drug-like properties.
The access to information on the dynamic behaviour of large proteins is usually hindered as spectroscopic methods require the site-specific attachment of biophysical probes. A powerful emerging tool to tackle this issue is amber codon suppression. Till date, its application on large and complex multidomain proteins of MDa size has not been reported. Herein, we systematically investigate the feasibility to introduce different non-canonical amino acids into a 540 kDa homodimeric fatty acid synthase type I by genetic code expansion with subsequent fluorescent labelling. Our approach relies on a microplate-based reporter assay of low complexity using a GFP fusion protein to quickly screen for sufficient suppression conditions. Once identified, these findings were successfully utilized to upscale both the expression scale and the protein size to full-length constructs. These fluorescently labelled samples of fatty acid synthase were subjected to initial biophysical experiments, including HPLC analysis, activity assays and fluorescence spectroscopy. Successful introduction of such probes into a molecular machine such as fatty acid synthases may pave the way to understand the conformational variability, which is a primary intrinsic property required for efficient interplay of all catalytic functionalities, and to engineer them.
The humanized non-depleting anti-CD4 monoclonal antibody Tregalizumab (BT-061) is able to selectively activate the suppressive function of regulatory T cells and has been investigated up to phase 2b in clinical trials in patients suffering from rheumatoid arthritis (RA).
A pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic model, which is based on clinical data from RA and healthy subjects, used the cell surface CD4-down-modulation as marker of the antibodies' activity. This model surprisingly revealed a stronger effect of Tregalizumab in healthy subjects compared to RA patients. This thesis presents a series of experiments performed to understand this phenomenon.
To counteract oxidative stress, which is strongly associated with RA pathophysiology, the organism employs the small oxidoreductase thioredoxin-1 (Trx1). Therefore, augmented expression and secretion of Trx1 was seen in many studies the synovial fluid and plasma of RA patients. Moreover, the binding site of Tregalizumab is in close proximity to a disulfide bond in domain 2 (D2) of CD4, which is a known target for a reduction by Trx1. So, this thesis also evaluated the influence of Trx1 on binding of Tregalizumab to its target CD4.
With the experiments reported herein, it was possible to demonstrate that specific reduction of the D2 disulfide bond of CD4 by Trx1 led to diminished binding of Tregalizumab to recombinant human soluble CD4 (rh sCD4) and membrane-bound CD4 on T cells from a human leukemia cell line and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). Moreover, the experiments revealed that this caused changes in the Tregalizumab-induced CD4 signalling pathway via the lymphocyte-specific protein tyrosine kinase p56Lck.
In summary, this thesis provides evidence that high Trx1 levels in RA patients compared to healthy subjects are a potential valid reason for diminished binding of Tregalizumab to CD4-positive T cells and offers an explanation for the observed decreased CD4 down-modulation in RA patients in comparison with healthy subjects. It emphasizes that binding of Tregalizumab is impaired in a particular way in RA patients.
HDAC inhibitors (HDACI), a new class of anticancer agents, induce apoptosis in many cancer entities. JNJ-26481585 is a second generation class І HDACI that displays improved efficacy in preclinical studies compared to the established HDACI SAHA (Vorinostat). Therefore, this study aims at evaluating the effects of JNJ-26481585 on human rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) and at identifying novel synergistic interactions of JNJ-26481585 or the more common HDACI SAHA with different anticancer drugs in RMS cells. Indeed, we show that JNJ-26481585 and SAHA significantly increase chemotherapeutic drug-induced apoptosis in embryonal and alveolar RMS cell lines, when used in combination with chemotherapeutic agents (i.e. doxorubicin, etoposide, vincristine, and cyclophosphamide) which are currently used in the clinic for the treatment of RMS.
We demonstrate that JNJ-26481585 as single agent and in combination with doxorubicin induces apoptosis, which is characterized by activation of the caspase cascade, PARP cleavage, and DNA fragmentation. Induction of caspase-dependent apoptotic cell death is confirmed by the use of the broad-range caspase inhibitor zVAD.fmk, which significantly decreases both JNJ-26481585-triggered and combination treatment-mediated DNA fragmentation, and in addition completely abrogates loss of cell viability. Importantly, JNJ-26481585 significantly inhibits tumor growth in vivo in two preclinical RMS models, i.e. the chicken chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) model and a xenograft mouse model, supporting the notion that JNJ-26481585 hampers tumor maintenance. Also, in combination with doxorubicin JNJ-26481585 significantly reduces tumor growth in in vivo experiments using the CAM model.
Mechanistically, we identify that JNJ-26481585-induced apoptosis is mediated via the intrinsic apoptotic pathway, since we observe increased loss of mitochondrial membrane potential and activation of the proapoptotic Bcl-2 family members Bax and Bak. Interestingly, we find that JNJ-26481585 triggers induction of Bim, Bmf, Puma, and Noxa on mRNA level as well as on protein level, pointing to an altered transcription of BH3-only proteins as important event for the Bax/Bak-mediated loss of mitochondrial membrane potential as well as mitochondrial apoptosis induction upon JNJ-26481585 treatment. JNJ-26481585-initiated activation of Bax and Bak is not prevented with the addition of zVAD.fmk, suggesting that JNJ-26481585 first disrupts the mitochondria and subsequently activates the caspase cascade. When JNJ-26481585 is used in combination with doxorubicin, we observe not only an increase of proapoptotic Bcl-2 proteins, but also a decrease in the level of the antiapoptotic mitochondrial proteins Bcl-2, Mcl-1, and Bcl-xL. This indicates that Bax, Bak, Bim, and Noxa are crucial for JNJ-26481585-induced as well as JNJ/Dox treatment-induced apoptosis, since RNAi mediated silencing of Bax, Bak, Bim, and Noxa significantly impedes DNA fragmentation upon those treatments.
Furthermore, ectopic overexpression of Bcl-2 profoundly impairs both JNJ-26481585 and combination treatment-mediated apoptosis, abrogates caspase cleavage, and reduces activation of Bax and Bak, underlining the hypothesis that JNJ-26481585 initially targets the mitochondria and then activates caspases.
With the more commonly used HDACI SAHA we confirm the results obtained with the HDACI JNJ-26481585, since combination treatment with SAHA and doxorubicin also induces intrinsic apoptosis, which can be significantly diminished by zVAD.fmk or ectopic overexpression of Bcl-2. Treatment with SAHA and doxorubicin also affects expression levels of pro- and antiapoptotic mitochondrial proteins, thus shifting the balance towards the proapoptotic mitochondrial machinery, resulting in Bax/Bak activation, caspase activation, and subsequently apoptosis.
Taken together, we provide evidence that the HDACIs JNJ-26481585 and SAHA are promising therapeutic agents for the treatment of RMS and that combination regimens with HDACIs represent an efficient strategy to prime RMS cells for chemotherapy-induced apoptosis. These findings have important implications for mitochondrial apoptosis-targeted therapies of RMS.
Gout is the most common arthritic disease in human but was long neglected and therapeutic options are not satisfying. However, with the recent approval of the urate transporter inhibitor lesinurad, gout treatment has experienced a major innovation. Here we show that lesinurad possesses considerable modulatory potency on peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ). Since gout has a strong association with metabolic diseases such as type 2 diabetes, this side-activity appears as very valuable contributing factor to the clinical efficacy profile of lesinurad. Importantly, despite robustly activating PPARγ in vitro, lesinurad lacked adipogenic activity, which seems due to differential coactivator recruitment and is characterized as selective PPARγ modulator (sPPARγM).
Many highly active antitumour agents are currently not employable for the systemic chemotherapy of brain tumours since their entrance into the brain is blocked by the BBB. Obviously, the development of a strategy allowing effective delivery of these agents across the BBB would enormously extend the potential of the systemic chemotherapy. Chemotherapy of rat glioblastoma using nanoparticle-bound doxorubicin Doxorubicin bound to polysorbate-coated nanoparticles had been previously shown to significantly enhance survival in the orthotopic rat 101/8 glioblastoma model. The objective of this study was to investigate the therapeutic effects of this formulation by morphometric, histological and immunohistological methods. The 101/8 glioblastoma was implanted intracranially into the male Wistar rats. The animals were randomly divided into 3 groups; one group served as untreated control (n = 20). The second group received doxorubicin in solution (Dox-sol, n = 18), and the third group received doxorubicin bound to PBCA nanoparticles coated with PS 80 (Dox-NP + PS 80, n = 18). The treatment regimen was 3 × 1.5 mg/kg on days 2, 5, and 8 after tumor implantation. The formulations were injected into the tail vein. The untreated control animals were sacrificed on days 6, 8, 10, 12, and 14 after the implantation. The animals that had received chemotherapy were sacrificed on day 10, 14 and 18 after the implantation. The brains were investigated by morphometrical, histochemical, and immunohistochemical methods such as the measurement of the tumor size, proliferation of tumor cells, vessel density, expression of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), incidence and dimension of necrosis, and microvascular proliferation. Tumours showed signs of malignancy including invasion to brain tissue and brisk mitotic activity. The tumor proliferation remained stable at high levels throughout the host survival time. Overall, the tumor showed a reproducible growth pattern and temporal development that is comparable to human glioblastoma. Furthermore, the 101/8 glioblastoma had infiltrated diffusely the surrounding host brain at the edge of the solid tumor mass showed no signs of encapsulation. Thus the 101/8 glioblastoma fulfills the most criteria for an adequate glioma model and can be qualified as a reliable model. ...
CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells (Tregs) represent a specialized subpopulation of T cells, which are essential for maintaining peripheral tolerance and preventing autoimmunity. The immunomodulatory effects of Tregs depend on their activation status. Here we show that, in contrast to conventional anti-CD4 monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), the humanized CD4-specific monoclonal antibody tregalizumab (BT-061) is able to selectively activate the suppressive properties of Tregs in vitro. BT-061 activates Tregs by binding to CD4 and activation of signaling downstream pathways. The specific functionality of BT-061 may be explained by the recognition of a unique, conformational epitope on domain 2 of the CD4 molecule that is not recognized by other anti-CD4 mAbs. We found that, due to this special epitope binding, BT-061 induces a unique phosphorylation of T-cell receptor complex-associated signaling molecules. This is sufficient to activate the function of Tregs without activating effector T cells. Furthermore, BT-061 does not induce the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines. These results demonstrate that BT-061 stimulation via the CD4 receptor is able to induce T-cell receptor-independent activation of Tregs. Selective activation of Tregs via CD4 is a promising approach for the treatment of autoimmune diseases where insufficient Treg activity has been described. Clinical investigation of this new approach is currently ongoing.
LmrA is a member of the ATP Binding Cassette (ABC) transporter family of membrane proteins and a structural and functional homologue of P-glycoprotein1, 2. ABC-transporters share a common architecture of two transmembrane domains and two nucleotide binding domains. The NBDs are highly conserved in this transporter family whereas the TMDs are highly diverse3. The TMDs recognize the substrate and the NBDs bind and hydrolyze ATP and thus contribute the energy for substrate translocation. ABC transporters as a protein family transport a high number of substrates including peptides, nutrients, ions, bile acids, lipids and other lipophilic compounds. LmrA is a multidrug transporter that recognizes a number of hydrophobic substrates including fluorescent dyes and antibiotics1, 4-6. LmrA is a native protein of the gram-positive bacterium Lactococcus lactis. In this thesis, L. lactis was used as a homologous expression host for the preparation of LmrA for a variety of experiments. Wildtype LmrA as well as a number of cysteine mutants were successfully expressed in L. lactis, purified and subsequently characterized by a variety of biochemical assays (Chapter 4). LmrA can be expressed to very high amounts in L. lactis. The purification and reconstitution were optimized for the requirements of solid-state NMR experiments in this thesis. For the first time, an ABC transporter has been reconstituted in synthetic lipids to a ratio of up to 1:150 (mol/mol). LmrA was shown to be active under magic angle spinning conditions with these reconstitution ratios. By taking advantage of the slower ATP hydrolysis by LmrA ΔK388 (lysine deletion in the Walker A motif), a real-time 31P solid-state NMR ATPase assay was established (Chapter 5). This assay allowed, for the first time, the investigation of all phosphor nuclei during the ATP hydrolysis cycle of a membrane protein simultaneously and in real time7. This assay has been successfully adapted to investigate both ATP hydrolysis and substrate phosphorylation of diacylglycerol kinase (together with S. Wollschlag) and ATP hydrolysis at high temperatures of the thermophilic ABC transporter ABC1 from Thermos thermophilus (together with A. Zutz). In the course of this thesis, the gene for LmrA has been cloned into expression vectors suitable for Escherichia coli and the heterologous expression of LmrA was established (Chapter 4). The functionality of the heterologously expressed protein has been investigated and compared to L. lactis LmrA. In these experiments, LmrA was shown to yield a distinct multidrug resistance phenotype in its E. coli host and to show secondary active multidrug transport in the absence of ATP and presence of a proton gradient [Hellmich et al, in prep] (Chapter 4). Previously, it had been shown that LmrA acts as a seconadary active transporter when the NBDs are truncated8. The overexpression in minimal and defined medium and the purification of LmrA from E. coli have been optimized. Isotope labeling for ssNMR has been established and the first multinuclear ssNMR experiments have been carried out on a functional ABC transporter (Chapter 8). ABC transporters couple two cycles: upon ATP binding, the NBDs dimerize, hydrolyze the ATP, subsequently release Pi and ADP and finally dissociate. During this cycle, conformational changes are relayed to the TMDs which utilize the energy from ATP binding and/or hydrolysis to translocate the respective substrate. The prehydrolysis state can be trapped by beryllium fluoride, whereas the post-hydrolysis state of this cycle can be trapped by vanadate9-12. Trapping protocols for these reagents were successfully established for LmrA in this thesis (Chapter 4). This allowed for the investigation of different catalytic states by both ssNMR and EPR. A general 19F labeling protocol for membrane proteins has been established in the course of this thesis and successfully applied to proteorhodopsin (together with N. Pfleger)13 and LmrA (chapter 6). Single cysteine mutants of LmrA that line out the dimer interface have been labeled with a fluorine label for ssNMR. In the apo state, the 19F labeling indicates highly flexible transmembrane domains, a finding that is supported by 13C ssNMR and EPR measurements. The addition of drugs has a different effect on different positions within the LmrA dimer, therefore indicating that different drugs are recognized at a different position within the protein. For P-glycoprotein and LmrA it has been previously shown by biochemical methods that different drug binding sites co-exist. For a 19F label attached at position 314 (LmrA E314C), the spectra showed two distinct peaks with similar populations. This could hint towards a structural asymmetry within the LmrA dimer that might also be reflected in the alternating ATP hydrolysis at the NBDs. E314 has been specifically implicated with drug transport. Thus, structural asymmetry at this position might be functionally relevant for guiding a substrate through the transporter. Structural asymmetry within a homodimeric ABC transporter has also been shown for BtuCD, the E. coli vitamin B12 importer14. In addition, the conserved glutamates in EmrE, a small multidrug resistance protein, were shown to be asymmetric in the drug bound state15. Both, uniformly 13C/15N labeled as well as selectively amino acid type labeled LmrA has been investigated in different conformational states. Interestingly, significant dynamic changes in the b-sheet regions of LmrA (confined to the NBDs) were observed in the pre-hydrolysis (beryllium fluoride) and transition state (vanadate trapped) state. These were interpreted as the transition from a domain in fast conformational exchange in the apo state to one of intermediate exchange in the nucleotide bound state. A significant change in NBD mobility upon nucleotide binding was previously also shown with 2H ssNMR on LmrA16. By EPR it was shown that LmrA in both the vanadate and BeFx trapped states displays a significantly higher rigidity and therefore defined distances, whereas the apo state resembled a “floppy” protein with no preferred distance distribution. This concurs with data obtained from 19F ssNMR with fluorine labeled single-cysteine mutants. Here, in agreement with the EPR data, a higher label (and possibly) protein mobility was observed in the apo state displaying rather broad line widths. Upon trapping with vanadate, the line widths of the majority of fluorine-labeled mutants decreased due to an enhanced protein rigidity and a more homogenous environment of the fluorine labels. A similar observation was made when increasing the temperature that can be explained due to higher protein flexibility at increased temperatures. Solution NMR was employed to investigate the isolated soluble NBD of LmrA (Chapter 9). First 2D and 3D spectra were successfully obtained and could be utilized for a preliminary assignment of a significant fraction of residues. Additionally, binding of ATP and ADP in absence and presence of magnesium was investigated. Finally, the effects of peptides emulating the coupling helices of the full-length transporter on the soluble NBD were investigated. Strikingly, binding of one of these peptides only occurred in the presence of nucleotides (whereas the other showed no binding at all) hinting towards a tightly coupled regulation of the NBD and TMD during the substrate translocation/ATP hydrolysis cycle based on nucleotide binding.
Der Produktion von Interleukin-8 (IL-8), Hämoxygenase-1 (HO-1), und dem vaskulären endothelialen Wachstumsfaktor (VEGF) wird zunehmend größere Bedeutung im Rahmen der Regulation der Immunantwort bei Entzündung, Infektion und Tumorwachstum zugemessen. Ziel dieser Arbeit war die Untersuchung der Regulation dieser Botenstoffe in vitro durch Verwendung der humanen Dickdarmkarzinomzellinie DLD-1. Die Substanz Pyrrolidinedithiocarbamate (PDTC) verstärkt nicht nur die durch Tumornekrosefaktor-a (TNF-a) vermittelte Ausschüttung von IL-8, sondern induziert auch als alleiniger Stimulus die IL-8-Sekretion. Mutationsanalysen des IL-8-Promotors und "Electrophoretic Mobility Shift" Untersuchungen (EMSA) zeigten, daß die Aktivierung des Transkriptionsfaktors AP-1 (Aktivator Protein-1) und die Bindungsaktivität von konstitutiv aktiviertem NF-KB in DLD-1 Zellen für die PDTC induzierte IL-8 Expression zwingend erforderlich waren. Weiterhin war PDTC in der Lage in DLD-1 Zellen neben IL-8 auch die Expression von HO-1 und VEGF zu verstärken. Die Induktion von IL-8 durch PDTC war nicht nur auf DLD-1 Zellen beschränkt, sondern wurde auch in Caco-2 Zellen (ebenfalls Dickdarmkrebszellen) und in humanen mononukleären Blutzellen beobachtet. Die Verwendung von PDTC wird seit kurzem als Kombinationspräparat für Zytostatia zur Behandlung von verschiedenen bösartigen Tumoren, unter ihnen auch Darmkrebs, vorgeschlagen. Aus unseren Versuchen läßt sich ableiten, daß die Induktion von IL-8, HO-1 und VEGF die therapeutische Anwendung dieser Substanz nachteilig beeinflussen könnte. Dies ergibt sich daraus, daß alle drei genannten Faktoren durch proangiogene Wirkungen das Tumorwachstum fördern. Die Expression der induzierbaren Stickoxidsynthase und die Produktion von Stickoxid (NO) korreliert mit der Angiogenese bei verschiedenen Krebserkrankungen darunter Melanome, Tumore im Hals- und Kopfbereich und Darmkrebs. Da tumorbegünstigende Funktionen von NO mit vermehrter Angiogenese in Verbindung gebracht werden, wurden die Effekte von NO hinsichtlich der Produktion von ausgesuchten Chemokinen, die an der Steuerung des Tumorwachstums beteiligt sind, untersucht. Zu diesen Chemokinen gehören das proangiogene IL-8 sowie das tumorsuppressiv durch Interferon induzierbare Protein-10 (IP-10) und das Monokin induziert durch Interferon-y (MIG). Diese Chemokine werden, nach Stimulation mit IL- 1ß und lnterferon-? (IFN-?) von DLD-1 Zellen, ausgeschüttet. Unter diesen Bedingungen wird die IL-8 Freisetzung alleine durch IL-1ß vermittelt, aber nicht durch INFy. Im Gegensatz zu IL-8 hängt die Sekretion von IP-10 und MIG von der Aktivierung durch IFNy ab. Die Effekte von NO wurden analysiert indem DLD-1 Zellen mit dem NO-Donor DETA-NO inkubiert wurden. DETA-NO besitzt eine Halbwertzeit von 16,5h und simuliert damit die Effekte der endogenen NO-Synthase. Synthese und Freisetzung von IL-8 wurden durch die Behandlung mit NO stark gesteigert. Außerdem wurde in Zellen die dem NO-Donor ausgesetzt wurden die basale Sekretion des VEGF signifikant verstärkt. Dies steht im Gegensatz zur IL-Iß/IFNy-induzierten Produktion von IP-10 und MIG, beide wurden durch Koinkubation mit NO unterdrückt. Ebenso wurde die Regulation der IFNy abhängigen induzierbaren Stickoxidsynthase in DLD-1 Zellen von NO unterdrückt. Die vorliegenden Daten ergänzen vorherige Studien, in denen NO mit Tumorangiogenese und verstärkten Tumorwachstum in Verbindung gebracht wird. Die NO vermittelte Induktion von IL-8 und VEGF, ebenso wie die Verminderung der IP-10 and MIG Expression, könnte zu diesem Phänomen beitragen. Unsere Studien stützen die Hypothese, daß spezifische lnhibitoren der iNOS therapeutischen Nutzen bei humanen Neoplasien haben könnten.
Breaking tolerance to the natural human liver autoantigen cytochrome P450 2D6 by virus infection
(2009)
Autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) is a chronic liver disease of unknown etiology, characterized by a loss of tolerance against hepatocytes leading to the progressive destruction of hepatic parenchyma and cirrhosis. Clinical signs for AIH are interface hepatitis and portal plasma cell infiltration, hypergammaglobulinemia, and autoantibodies. Based on serological markers AIH is defined in subtypes. The hallmark of AIH type 2 are type 1 liver/kidney microsomal autoantibodies (LKM-1), whereas AIH type 1 is characterized by the presence of anti-nuclear (ANA) and/or anti-smooth muscular (SMA) autoantibodies. The major autoantigen recognized specifically by LKM-1 autoantibodies was identified as the 2D6 isoform of the cytochrome P450 enzyme family (CYP2D6). Not much is known about the etiology and pathogenic mechanisms of AIH so far and most animal models available result in only transient hepatic liver damage after a rather complex initiation method. It was the aim of my project to generate a novel animal model for AIH that reflects the chronic and progressive destruction of the liver characteristic for the human disease while using a defined and feasible initiating event to further analyze the pathogenic mechanisms leading to the autoimmune-mediated destruction of the liver. Therefore, mice transgenically expressing the human CYP2D6 in the liver and wild-type mice were infected with a liver-tropic adenovirus expressing the human CYP2D6 (Ad-2D6). Selftolerance to CYP2D6 was broken in Ad-2D6-infected mice, resulting in persistent autoimmune liver damage, apparent by cellular infiltration, hepatic fibrosis and necrosis. Similar to type 2 AIH patients, Ad-2D6-infected mice generated LKM-1-like antibodies recognizing the same immunodominant epitope of CYP2D6. Taken together, we could introduce a new animal model that reflects the persistent autoimmune-mediated liver damage as well as the serological marker characteristic for AIH type 2 and we could demonstrate that chronic autoimmune diseases targeting the liver can be triggered by molecular mimicry occurring in the context of a hepatotropic viral infection.
Breaking tolerance to the natural human liver autoantigen cytochrome P450 2D6 by virus infection
(2008)
Autoimmune liver diseases, such as autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) and primary biliary cirrhosis, often have severe consequences for the patient. Because of a lack of appropriate animal models, not much is known about their potential viral etiology. Infection by liver-tropic viruses is one possibility for the breakdown of self-tolerance. Therefore, we infected mice with adenovirus Ad5 expressing human cytochrome P450 2D6 (Ad-2D6). Ad-2D6–infected mice developed persistent autoimmune liver disease, apparent by cellular infiltration, hepatic fibrosis, “fused” liver lobules, and necrosis. Similar to type 2 AIH patients, Ad-2D6–infected mice generated type 1 liver kidney microsomal–like antibodies recognizing the immunodominant epitope WDPAQPPRD of cytochrome P450 2D6 (CYP2D6). Interestingly, Ad-2D6–infected wild-type FVB/N mice displayed exacerbated liver damage when compared with transgenic mice expressing the identical human CYP2D6 protein in the liver, indicating the presence of a stronger immunological tolerance in CYP2D6 mice. We demonstrate for the first time that infection with a virus expressing a natural human autoantigen breaks tolerance, resulting in a chronic form of severe, autoimmune liver damage. Our novel model system should be instrumental for studying mechanisms involved in the initiation, propagation, and precipitation of virus-induced autoimmune liver diseases.
Over the last years there has been an increasing interest in the involvement of the MVA-pathway and of members of the small GTPases, in the development and progression of AD. Earlier investigations mainly focused on the role of cholesterol in disease pathology. This research was supported by retrospective cohort studies, initially showing beneficial effects of the long-term intake of cholesterol lowering statins, on the incidence of the development of sporadic AD. However, in more recent literature increasing attention has been paid to the isoprenoids, FPP and GGPP, due to their crucial role in the post-translational modifications of members of the superfamily of small GTPases. In AD, these proteins were amongst others shown to be involved in mechanisms affecting APP processing, ROS generation and synaptic plasticity. A major factor impeding the clarification of the role of the MVA-pathway intermediates in these mechanisms was the lack of a sensitive and accurate method to determine FPP and GGPP levels in brain tissue. Hence, a state of the art HPLC-FLD method for the quantification of the isoprenoids FPP and GGPP in brain tissue was successfully developed. After the introduction of a double clean-up step from complex brain matrix samples and the synthesis of an appropriate IS (DNP), the method was fully validated according to the latest FDA guideline for bioanalytical method validation. Furthermore, this method was transferred to a faster and more sensitive, state of the art UHPLC-MS/MS application. Additionally, the method was shown to be applicable for mouse brain tissue and data was generated from an in vivo mouse simvastatin study and for different mouse models. According to the aims of the thesis, the current work describes for the first time absolute isoprenoid concentrations in human frontal cortex white and grey matter. Furthermore, this is the first report of isoprenoid levels in the frontal cortex of human AD brains. Further results were shown from mouse brains originating from different mouse models, including the Thy-1 APP mouse model mimicking AD pathology in terms of Aβ formation or C57Bl/6 mice at different ages. AD prevalence can be clearly correlated with increasing age. Therefore, three different generations of mice were investigated. The study demonstrated constant isoprenoid and cholesterol levels in the first half of their life followed by a significant increase of FPP and GGPP in the second half (between 12 and 24 month of age). Cholesterol levels were also elevated in the aged group, but again the effect was less pronounced than shown for the isoprenoids. These results lead to the tentative conclusion that cerebral isoprenoid levels are elevated during aging and that this accumulation is amplified during AD leading to accelerated neuronal dysfunction. In a different mouse study, using the C57Bl/6 mice, in vivo drug intervention with the HMG-CoA reductase inhibitor simvastatin revealed strong inhibition of the rate limiting step of the mevalonate/isoprenoid/cholesterol pathway and resulted in the first report of significantly reduced FPP and GGPP levels in brain tissue of statin treated mice. These results open for the first time the possibility to monitor drug effects on cerebral isoprenoid levels and correlate these data with a modulation of APP processing, which was shown by our group in previous studies. Interestingly, apart from the isoprenoid reduction following statin treatment the reduction of brain cholesterol was also significant but to a lesser extent. These findings support the notion that isoprenoid levels are more susceptible to statin treatment than cholesterol levels. Furthermore, this suggests a strong cellular dependence on FPP and GGPP, as the pool seems to be easily depleted, which finally could lead to cell death. The first investigations of farnesylated Ras and geranylgeranylated Rac protein levels by means of immuno-blotting, substantiated the notion of a decreased abundance of prenylated small GTPases under statin influence as a consequence of reduced isoprenoid levels. These findings demonstrate for the first time a correlation of FPP and GGPP levels with the abundance of small GTPases. These findings together with the results from the AD study prove that isoprenoid levels are not strictly subject to the same regulation as cholesterol levels. To further understand the physiological regulation in the cell, in vitro experiments with different inhibitors of the mevalonate/isoprenoid/cholesterol pathway were conducted. These results confirmed the isoprenoid and cholesterol reducing effects of statin treatment as observed in the aforementioned in vivo mouse study. Interestingly, cholesterol synthesis inhibition targeted after FPP as the branch point, led to significantly elevated FPP levels. FTase inhibition led to significantly reduced FPP levels, whereas inhibition of the GGTase I did not show a significant change of either isoprenoid levels.
Leukotrienes (LTs) are inflammatory mediators that play a pivotal role in many diseases like asthma bronchiale, atherosclerosis and in various types of cancer. The key enzyme for generation of LTs is the 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO). Here, we present a novel putative protein isoform of human 5-LO that lacks exon 4, termed 5-LOΔ4, identified in cells of lymphoid origin, namely the Burkitt lymphoma cell lines Raji and BL41 as well as primary B and T cells. Deletion of exon 4 does not shift the reading frame and therefore the mRNA is not subjected to non-mediated mRNA decay (NMD). By eliminating exon 4, the amino acids Trp144 until Ala184 are omitted in the corresponding protein. Transfection of HEK293T cells with a 5-LOΔ4 expression plasmid led to expression of the corresponding protein which suggests that the 5-LOΔ4 isoform is a stable protein in eukaryotic cells. We were also able to obtain soluble protein after expression in E. coli and purification. The isoform itself lacks canonical enzymatic activity as it misses the non-heme iron but it still retains ATP-binding affinity. Differential scanning fluorimetric analysis shows two transitions, corresponding to the two domains of 5-LO. Whilst the catalytic domain of 5-LO WT is destabilized by calcium, addition of calcium has no influence on the catalytic domain of 5-LOΔ4. Furthermore, we investigated the influence of 5-LOΔ4 on the activity of 5-LO WT and proved that it stimulates 5-LO product formation at low protein concentrations. Therefore regulation of 5-LO by its isoform 5-LOΔ4 might represent a novel mechanism of controlling the biosynthesis of lipid mediators.
5-lipoxygenase (5-LO) is the key enzyme in the biosynthesis of leukotrienes and specialized proresolving lipid mediators (SPM). It is mainly expressed in leukocytes and is part of the innate immune system. 5-LO can shuttle between the cytosol and the nucleus. Upon cell activation the protein translocates from soluble cellular compartments to the nuclear membrane. Besides FLAP which is required for cellular leukotriene and SPM formation, 5-LO interacts with other proteins like coactosin-like protein (CLP), Dicer, β-catenin and p53. In this review, the factors involved in the regulation of 5-LO expression, the role of 5-LO in the regulation of stem cell proliferation and differentiation and its biological functions apart from leukotriene and SPM formation are summarized.
We developed the Pharmacophore Alignment Search Tool (PhAST), a text-based technique for rapid hit and lead structure searching in large compound databases. For each molecule, a two-dimensional graph of potential pharmacophoric points (PPPs) is created, which has an identical topology as the original molecule with implicit hydrogen atoms. Each vertex is coloured by a symbol representing the corresponding PPP. The vertices of the graph are canonically labelled. The symbols associated with the vertices are combined to a so-called PhAST-Sequence beginning with the vertex with the lowest canonical label. Due to the canonical labelling the created PhAST-Sequence is characteristic for each molecule. For similarity assessment, PhAST-Sequences are compared using the sequence identity in their global pairwise alignment. The alignment score lies between 0 (no similarity) and 1 (identical PhAST-Sequences). In order to use global pairwise sequence alignment, a score matrix for pharmacophoric symbols was developed and gap penalties were optimized. PhAST performed comparably and sometimes superior to other similarity search tools (CATS2D, MOE pharmacophore quadruples) in retrospective virtual screenings using the COBRA collection of drugs and lead structures. Most importantly, the PhAST alignment technique allows for the computation of significance estimates that help prioritize a virtual hit list.
Die Maillard-Reaktion findet während der Lagerung und thermischen Verarbeitung von Lebensmitteln zwischen den darin enthaltenen Proteinen und reduzierenden Kohlehydraten statt. Als Ergebnis der Reaktion entstehen sogenannte advanced glycation end products (AGEs), Protein-Derivate mit Glykierungs-Strukturen. Da Lebensmittel vor dem Verzehr häufig erhitzt werden, ist der Einfluss von AGEs auf die Pathogenese von Nahrungsmittelallergien von großem Interesse. Die Maillard-Reaktion könnte zur Bildung von neuen, für die Pathogenese der Nahrungsmittelallergie relevanten, Immunepitopen beitragen. Das Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, den Einfluss der Maillard-Reaktion auf die T-Zell-Immunogenität, die Antigenität und die von beiden Eigenschaften abhängige Allergenität von Nahrungsmittelallergenen zu untersuchen. Zunächst wurde der Einfluss der Maillard-Reaktion auf die T-Zell-Immunogenität von Ovalbumin (OVA), einem Allergen des Hühnereiweißes, untersucht. Dafür wurde glykiertes OVA (AGE-OVA) hergestellt indem das Protein zusammen mit Glukose erhitzt wurde. In dieser Arbeit konnte zum ersten Mal gezeigt werden, dass ein AGE-Derivat eines Lebensmittelallergens eine höhere T-Zellen-Immunogenität besitzt, als sein natives Gegenstück. Die Aktivierung und Proliferation von CD4+ T-Zellen durch AGE-OVA wurde in vitro durch Co-Kultivierung der T-Zellen mit dendritischen Zellen (DZ) untersucht. DZ sind professionelle Antigen- präsentierende Zellen, welche im Pathomechanismus der Allergie eine wichtige Rolle spielen. Im Vergleich zu nativen OVA und OVA welches ohne Glukose erhitzt wurde, führte die Stimulierung mit AGE-OVA zu einer deutlich erhöhten Aktivierung von OVA-spezifischen CD4+ T-Zellen. Damit DZ T-Zellen aktivieren können, muss das Allergen zunächst durch die DZ aufgenommen werden. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde gezeigt, dass die Aufnahme von AGE-OVA wesentlich höher war als die der Kontrollen. Außerdem konnte der scavenger receptor class A type I and II (SR-AI/II) als einer der hauptverantwortlichen Rezeptoren für die Aufnahme von AGE-OVA identifiziert werden. Zusammenfassend lässt sich aus den Ergebnissen dieser Arbeit die Hypothese aufstellen, dass die Glykierung von OVA eine erhöhte Assoziation des Allergens mit SR-AI/II ermöglicht, welche zu einer verstärkten Aufnahme des Allergens durch die DZ führt. Dadurch können mehr Peptide des Allergens an MHC II gebunden und auf der Zelloberfläche präsentiert werden. Das wiederum führt zur beobachteten stärkeren OVA-spezifischen CD4+ T-Zell-Aktivierung durch AGE-OVA. Als nächstes wurde die T-Zell-Immunogenität und Antigenität von AGE-OVA in vivo in einem Mausmodel untersucht. Es zeigte sich, dass AGE-OVA auch in vivo im Vergleich zu den nicht glykierten OVA-Formen eine erhöhte T-Zell-Immunogenität besitzt. Des weiteren führte die Immunisierung mit AGE-OVA zu einer erhöhten Produktion von IgE-Antikörpern. Somit wurde in dieser Arbeit gezeigt, dass AGE-OVA in vivo nicht nur eine erhöhte CD4+ T-Zell-Immunogenität besitzt, sondern auch eine höhere Antigenität hat als natives und ohne Glukose erhitztes OVA. Diese Ergebnisse harmonieren gut miteinander da CD4+ T-Zellen eine zentrale Rolle in der Aktivierung von B-Zellen und der IgE-Produktion durch selbige Zellen spielen. IgE-Antikörper besitzen eine essentielle Funktion beim Auslösen der klinischen Symptomatik der Allergie. Zusammenfassend lässt deshalb sagen, dass die Maillard-Reaktion die Allergenität von OVA erhöhen könnte. Zum Schluss wurden noch die immunstimulatorischen Eigenschaften des Erdnussallergens (AGE)-Ara h 2 untersucht. Da Erdnüsse häufig ernsthafte allergische Reaktionen hervorrufen und selten roh verzehrt werden, war es vom großen Interesse den Einfluss der Maillard-Reaktion auf Immunogenität und Antigenität von rekombinanten Ara h 2 (rAra h 2) zu untersuchen. Es zeigte sich, dass die Glykierung von rAra h 2 durch die Maillard-Reaktion die T-Zellen-Immunogenität, als auch die Antigenität des Allergens reduziert. Abschließend lässt sich sagen, dass die Maillard-Reaktion die allergenen Eigenschaften von Lebensmittelallergenen erheblich beeinflusst indem es die T-Zell-Immunogenität des Allergens verändert. Die Mechanismen welche die T-Zell-Immunogenität beeinflussen wurden hier näher untersucht. Wenn die Glykierung nicht die Bindung der T-Zellen- und/oder B-Zellen-Rezeptoren inhibiert, wird die Allergen-spezifische CD4+ T-Zell-Aktivierung und die davon abhängige IgE-Produktion dadurch erhöht, dass das glykierte Allergen durch DZ verstärkt über SR-AI/II aufgenommen wird. Die vorliegende Arbeit liefert wertvolle Information über die Allergenität von Proteinen die durch die Maillard-Reaktion modifiziert wurden and trägt dazu bei die Mechanismen von Nahrungsmittelallergien besser zu verstehen.
Purpose. Status epilepticus (SE) is characterized by recurrent seizure activity and can be drug-resistant. Knowledge of neuronal and metabolic activity of the brain during SE may be helpful to improve medical care. We here report the effects of three anti-seizure drugs on changes of acetylcholine energy metabolites and oxidative stress during SE. Methods. We used the lithium-pilocarpine model in rats to induce SE and in vivo-microdialysis to monitor cholinergic and metabolic activity in the hippocampus. We measured extracellular concentrations of acetylcholine, glucose, lactate, pyruvate, glycerol and isoprostanes before and during SE, and after acute treatment with pregabalin, valproic acid, and levetiracteam. Results. Upon onset of SE, acetylcholine (ACh) release increased six- to eightfold. Glucose was increased only transiently by 30% but lactate levels rose four-fold, and extracellular concentrations of glycerol ten-fold. Isoprostanes are markers of oxidative stress and increased more than 20-fold. Two hours after pilocarpine adminstration, rats were treated with pregabalin (100 mg/kg), levetiracetam (200 mg/kg) or valproic acid (400 mg/kg) by i.p. injection. All three drugs stopped seizure activity in a delayed fashion, but at the doses indicated, only animals that received levetiracetam reached consciousness. All drugs reduced ACh release within 60-120 minutes. Lactate/pyruvate ratios, glycerol and isoprostanne levels were also reduced significantly after drug administration. Conclusions. Hippocampal ACh release closely follows seizure activity in SE and is attenuated when SE subsides. Pregabalin, valproic acid and levetiracetam all terminate seizures in the rat SE model and attenuate cholinergic and metabolic changes within two hours.
The role of the Ca2+-dependent protease calpain in the diabetes-associated platelet hyperreactivity
(2012)
Platelets from diabetic patients are characterised by hyperreactivity resulting in exaggerated adhesion, aggregation and thrombus formation which contribute to the development of cardiovascular complications known to be one of the main causes of diabetes-related mortality. One of the mechanisms suggested to be involved in the diabetes-related platelet hyperactivation is the increased [Ca2+]i which leads to the overactivation of Ca2+-dependent proteases, the calpains. Among the calpain isoforms expressed in platelets the two ubquitiously expressed μ- and m-calpain are thought to play an important role in physiological and pathophysiological processes. Particularly μ-calpain is known to be involved in many steps of physiological platelet activation such as aggregation, adhesion, secretion, and signalling. However, we could show that diabetes was associated with an enhanced activation of both μ- and m-calpain in platelets
In the first part of the study we focussed on the characterization of the molecular mechanism regulating calpain activity. Indeed, although Ca2+ is considered to be the main regulator of the proteolytic activity of the conventional calpains, other mechanisms such as the presence of phospholipids and phosphorylation have been reported to affect their activity. Since most studies reported the phosphorylation of m-calpain we were interested to see whether μ-calpain activity might be also affected by phosphorylation. We could show that the activity of μ-calpain was enhanced by the PKC activator PMA suggesting its possible regulation by phosphorylation. However, whether PKC directly targeted μ-calpain remains unclear. Given that substrate recognition is important for a protease to process its substrate and since no common consensus could be attributed to calpain substrates, our next interest was to understand the mechanism regulating the recognition of its substrates by calpain. Since phosphorylation has been reported to protect different proteins from calpain degradation we investigated whether the calpain substrate CD31 could be phosphorylated in platelets and whether this could affect its recognition by calpain. Although we could show that the tyrosine phosphorylation of CD31 was increased after activation of platelets by thrombin and that this effect was attenuated in platelets from diabetic patients, tyrosine phosphorylation of CD31 seemed to have no effect on its sensitivity to calpain-mediated proteolysis.
After the analysis of the mechanism regulating calpain activity as well as its interaction with its substrates, our next interest was the identification of new calpain substrates in platelets. Since a previous study from our group showed that PPARγ agonists could indirectly reverse the diabetes-associated calpain activation we performed DIGE analysis of platelet samples from diabetic patients before and after PPARγ agonist treatment. Using this approach we could identify four novel calpain substrates in platelets: Integrin-linked kinase (ILK), α parvin, CLP36 and septin-5. Next, we assessed the effect of calpain-mediated cleavage on the function of these newly identified proteins. We could show that μ-calpain was essential for the dissociation of ILK from the IPP complex and its activation while m-calpain-mediated cleavage led to its cleavage and inactivation. Functionally, we also showed that μ-calpain was involved in platelet adhesion while m-calpain was important for spreading.
The next protein we analysed was septin-5, a small GTPase known to regulate platelet degranulation by association with other septins and syntaxin-4. We found that the interaction between septin-5 and syntaxin-4 was inhibitory for platelet degranulation. We could demonstrate that the μ-calpain-mediated cleavage dissociated septin-5 from syntaxin 4 and led to increased secretion of platelet α-granules. Next, we investigated the in vivo role of calpain in the diabetes-associated platelet hyperreactivity. We induced diabetes in mice and could reproduce calpain activation in platelets such as that found in human. Indeed, calpain activation in murine platelets also led to the cleavage of several calpain substrates including ILK and septin-5. Moreover, platelets from diabetic mice demonstrated an increased aggregation and thrombus formation in vivo. Treatment of the animals with the calpain inhibitor A-705253 (30 mg/kg/day for 10 days) significantly restored platelet function and substrate cleavage. In conclusion, in this part of the study, we could show that the increased calpain-dependent α-granule secretion and platelet adhesion may account for the enhanced vascular proliferation and thrombus formation in diabetes and calpain inhibition represents a promising way to prevent atherothrombosis development.
In the last part of the study we analysed another enzyme known to play a crucial role in diabetes, the AMPK which is an energy-sensing kinase known to be impaired in diabetes. We could show that the two catalytic subunits AMPK α1 and α2 are expressed in platelets. The AMPKα2 seemed to be the subunit involved in platelet activation since AMPKα2-deficient mice demonstrated a defect in clot retraction and the stabilization of the thrombus while the animals showed a normal bleeding time. Mechanistically, we showed in platelets that the upstream kinase of AMPKα2 is LKB1 which was activated by thrombin stimulation via a PI-3K-dependent pathway. AMPKα2 then phosphorylated the Src-family kinase Fyn, which is responsible for the phosphorylation of its substrate β3 integrin on Tyr747. These data indicate that AMPKα2, by affecting Fyn phosphorylation and activity, plays a key role in platelet αIIbβ3 integrin signalling, leading to clot retraction and thrombus stability. Although the effect of diabetes in the AMPK-dependent pathway could not be investigated we assume that the dysregulation of this pathway may account for the thrombus destabilization and enhanced embolization encountered in diabetes.
The endocannabinoids (EC), their synthetizing and metabolizing enzymes, and the cannabinoid (CB) receptors comprise the endocannabinoid system (ECS) that has been detected by Yasuo et al. (2010) in rodent and human brain areas essential for circadian rhythmic control and hormone secretion. The EC are secreted in the pars tuberalis formation (PT) of the pituitary gland and unfold their effect as ligands on cannabinoid receptors type 1 (CB1) in the pars distalis (PD). The CB1 is mostly expressed on folliculo-stellate (fs) cells of the PD. The fs cells execute regulative and supportive functions to adjacent hormone-producing cells (Allaerts and Venkelecom, 2005; Mitsuishi et al., 2013). The lipid and calcium binding protein Annexin A1 (Anx A1) and the cell membrane permeable compound nitric oxide (NO) have been detected in the fs cells (Woods et al., 1990; Devnath and Inoue, 2008). There are published findings indicating strong influence of Anx A1 and NO on hormone production (Taylor et al. 1993; Venkelecom et al, 1997). The hypothesis of this study is that the EC influence hormonal secretion by acting upon CB1 receptors on fs cells and thus activating or inhibiting Anx A1 and NO that directly affect adjacent glandular cells.
Prevalently cell models were used to carry out the experimental work. The TtT/GF and Tpit/F1 cell lines represent the fs cells, the AtT20/D16v stand for the ACTH-producing corticotroph (C) cells, and GH4C1 for the PRL-producing lactotroph (L) cells. Whenever comparison with an integrity model was possible tissue from C3H mice was used. Chemoluminescent and photometrical detection, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS), immunoblot (IB), immunocyto- and immunohisto-chemical analysis (ICC, IHC), in situ hybridization (ISH), and (q) PCR methods were used as assaying tools to investigate CB1, Anx A1, the Anx A1 receptor - Fpr-rs1, NO, ACTH, and PRL.
CB1 was detected on the fs, C, and L cell models. The presence of fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH, an EC degrading enzyme) was confirmed in the fs cells. Incubations of the fs cells with CB1 agonists (2-AG, AEA, WIN) and antagonist (otenabant) were performed and resulting increase of Anx A1, and inhibition of NO were detected. Anx A1 binding sites, known as formyl peptide like receptor – related sequence 1 (Fpr-rs1) were identified on the C and L cells. The hormone-producing cells were treated with a 2-AG, Anx A1, and NO and the resulting changes in the levels of ACTH and PRL were detected. Anx A1 acted stimulatory on ACTH in the C AtT20/D16v cell and inhibitory on PRL in the L GH4C1 cell. NO inhibited both ACTH and PRL release. Additional analysis of the levels of expression of mRNA for Anx A1 and Fpr-rs1 in murine PD tissue demonstrated that while the expression of the first was not influenced by time, the expression of the latter was activated during the subjective day.
The here presented study shows that EC influence the ACTH release stimulatory through activating Anx A1 and inhibiting NO. As for PRL, the EC unfold an inhibition through activating Anx A1, and stimulation through inhibiting NO. A clear regulatory linkeage between the EC and ACTH and PRL control is revealed, involving the fs cells with possible time-dependence.
Stem cells capable of self-renewal and differentiation into multiple tissues are important in medicine to reconstitute the hematopoietic system after myelo-ablative chemo- or radiotherapy. In the present situation, adult stem cells such as Mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) and Hematopoietic stem cells (HSC) are used for therapeutic purposes. For tissue regeneration and tissue constitution, engraftment of transplanted stem cells is a necessary feature. However, in many instances, the transplanted stem cells reach the tissues with low efficiency. Considering the three-step model of leukocyte extravasation by Springer et al, the rolling, adhesion and transmigration form the three major steps for the transplanted stem cells to enter the desired tissues. One of the molecular switches reported to be involved in these mechanisms are the Rho family GTPases. The present study investigates the role of Rho GTPases in adhesion and migration of stem and progenitor cells. Chemotactic and chemokinetic migration assays, transendothelial migration assays, migration of cells under shear stress, microinjection, retroviral and lentiviral gene transfer methods, oligonucleotide microarray analysis and pull down assays were employed in this study for the elucidation of Rho GTPase involvement in migration and adhesion of stem and progenitor cells. The transmigration assay used for the migration determination of the adherent cell type, MSC, was optimized for the efficient and effective assessment of the migrating cells. The involvement of Rho was found to be critical for stem and progenitor cell migration where inactivation of Rho by C2I-C3 transferase toxin and/or overexpression of C3 transferase cDNA increased the migration rate of Hematopoietic progenitor cells (HPC) and MSC. Moreover, modulation of Rho caused predictable cytoskeletal and morphological changes in MSC. Assessment of Rho GTPase involvement in the interacting partner, the endothelial cells during stem cell migration, revealed that active Rho expression induced E-selectin expression. The increased levels of E-selectin were functionally confirmed by the increased adhesion of progenitor cells (HPC) to the Human umbilical vein endothelial cell (HUVEC) layer. Moreover, inhibition of Rac in the migrating endothelial progenitor cells (eEPC) increased their adhesion to HUVEC correlating with the increased percentage expression of cell surface receptor, CD44 in Rac inactivated eEPC. In conclusion, this study shows that Rho GTPases control the adhesion and migration of stem and progenitor cells, HPC and MSC. Rho inhibition drives the cells to migrate in the blood vessels. The substantial increase in the level of active Rho in endothelial layer, manifested by the E-selectin surface expression assists the better adhesion of stem and progenitor cells to the endothelial layer. Serum factors and growth factors in the physiological system influence the Rho GTPase expression in both migrating stem cells and the barrier endothelial cells. Thus, specific modulation of Rho GTPases in the transplanted stem and progenitor cells could be an interesting tool to improve the migration and homing processes of stem cells for cellular therapy in future.