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The neomycin sensing riboswitch is the smallest biologically functional RNA riboswitch, forming a hairpin capped with a U-turn loop—a well-known RNA motif containing a conserved uracil. It was shown previously that a U→C substitution of the eponymous conserved uracil does not alter the riboswitch structure due to C protonation at N3. Furthermore, cytosine is evolutionary permitted to replace uracil in other U-turns. Here, we use molecular dynamics simulations to study the molecular basis of this substitution in the neomycin sensing riboswitch and show that a structure-stabilizing monovalent cation-binding site in the wild-type RNA is the main reason for its negligible structural effect. We then use NMR spectroscopy to confirm the existence of this cation-binding site and to demonstrate its effects on RNA stability. Lastly, using quantum chemical calculations, we show that the cation-binding site is altering the electronic environment of the wild-type U-turn so that it is more similar to the cytosine mutant. The study reveals an amazingly complex and delicate interplay between various energy contributions shaping up the 3D structure and evolution of nucleic acids.
As adapter molecules to convert the nucleic acid information into the amino acid sequence, tRNAs play a central role in protein synthesis. To fulfill this function in a reliable way, tRNAs exhibit highly conserved structural features common in all organisms and in all cellular compartments active in translation. However, in mitochondria of metazoans, certain dramatic deviations from the consensus tRNA structure are described, where some tRNAs lack the D- or T-arm without losing their function. In Enoplea, this miniaturization comes to an extreme, and functional mitochondrial tRNAs can lack both arms, leading to a considerable size reduction. Here, we investigate the secondary and tertiary structure of two such armless tRNAs from Romanomermis culicivorax. Despite their high AU content, the transcripts fold into a single and surprisingly stable hairpin structure, deviating from standard tRNAs. The three-dimensional form is boomerang-like and diverges from the standard L-shape. These results indicate that such unconventional miniaturized tRNAs can still fold into a tRNA-like shape, although their length and secondary structure are very unusual. They highlight the remarkable flexibility of the protein synthesis apparatus and suggest that the translational machinery of Enoplea mitochondria may show compensatory adaptations to accommodate these armless tRNAs for efficient translation.
Die forensische Entomologie nutzt nekrophage Insekten, hauptsächlich Dipteren und ihre juvenilen Stadien, zur Schätzung der minimalen Leichenliegezeit. Dem liegt zugrunde, dass nekrophage Dipteren binnen Minuten nach dem Todeseintritt potentiell in der Lage sind, einen Leichnam zu detektieren und zu besiedeln. Das anschließende Wachstum und die Entwicklung der juvenilen Stadien erfolgt als Funktion von der Art und der Umgebungstemperatur.
Mit Hilfe von Laborstudien konnten bislang für einige forensisch relevante Fliegenarten Entwicklungsdaten erhoben werden, die eine Altersbestimmung der sich an einem Leichnam entwickelnden Larven und Puppen erlauben und so eine Schätzung der minimalen Leichenliegezeit ermöglichen. Als Nährsubstrat für Laborstudien werden tierische Gewebe verwendet. Eine Übertragbarkeit der Daten auf humanes Gewebe wurde aber bislang nicht verifiziert. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde das larvale Wachstum und die juvenile Entwicklungsgeschwindigkeit der forensisch relevanten Schmeißfliege Calliphora vicina (Diptera: Calliphoridae) auf humanem Muskelgewebe untersucht und mit dem Wachstum auf Schweineleber, magerem Schweinemuskelfleisch und Schweinehackfleisch verglichen. Die auf humanem Gewebe heranwachsenden Individuen waren mit bis zu 3,5 mm signifikant länger als die Individuen, die sich auf Leber und dem mageren Schweinemuskelfleisch entwickelten. Bei der Verwendung von Hackfleisch vom Schwein zeigte sich kein Unterschied. Darauf basierend wird die Empfehlung ausgesprochen, für zukünftige Entwicklungsstudien Schweinehackfleisch als Ersatz für humanes Gewebe zu verwenden.
Zahlreiche Anleitungen zur Asservierung forensisch-entomologischer Spuren empfehlen das Sammeln getrennt nach Körperregionen eines Leichnams. Dies soll eine mögliche gewebespezifische Entwicklungsrate berücksichtigen. Das für die vorliegende Arbeit durchgeführte systematische Absammeln von Fliegenlarven von 51 Leichnamen getrennt nach Körperregionen zeigte keine artspezifischen Präferenzen für bestimmte Gewebe oder Körperregionen. Das Artenspektrum entsprach größtenteils dem aufgrund von Studien an Schweinekadavern zu erwartendem Artenspektrum für Deutschland und Mitteleuropa. Insgesamt konnten 15 Schmeißfliegenarten nachgewiesen werden, von denen in der Regel mehrere gleichzeitig an einem Leichnam zu finden waren. Dies zeigt, dass ein Faktor wie interspezifische Konkurrenz in Zukunft mehr Beachtung in der Forschung erhalten sollte.
Bislang wurde in der forensischen Entomologie die minimale Leichenliegezeit durch die Untersuchung juveniler Stadien von Fliegen eingegrenzt. Eine eventuell mögliche Ausweitung dieses Zeitfensters könnte durch eine Altersbestimmung der adulten Fliegen oder der leeren Puparien gelingen. Der Nachweis, dass die dafür untersuchten Fliegen bzw. Puparien tatsächlich von dem fraglichen Leichnam stammen, war bislang nicht möglich. Die forensische relevante Schmeißfliege Lucilia sericata wurde in der vorliegenden Arbeit auf humanem Gewebe und Gewebe von elf weiteren Tierarten großgezogen. Durch die Analyse stabiler Kohlen- und Stickstoffisotope konnte ein von diesen elf Tierarten abgrenzbares humanes Isotopenprofil sowohl für die adulten Fliegen von L. sericata, als auch für ihre leeren Puparien detektiert werden. Dieses Profil spiegelte die Nahrungszusammensetzung der Wirte wider.
Die vorliegende Arbeit erhebt Daten zur Entwicklung einer forensisch relevanten Schmeißfliegenart auf humanem Gewebe, belegt das bislang lediglich am tierischen Modell erhobene Schmeißfliegeninventar als für menschliche Leichen relevant und hinterfragt die gewebespezifische Asservierungsempfehlung als ein akademisches Artefakt. Auf dieser Basis konnten Empfehlungen für die Weiterzucht fallrelevanter entomologischer Spuren ausgesprochen werden, die gerichtsverwertbar sind und die Verwendung von tierischem Gewebe oder Tierkadaver in der forensisch-entomologischen Forschung legitimieren. Die Analyse stabiler Isotope legt darüber hinaus einen neuen, innovativen Grundstein für die routinemäßige Spurenzuordnung älterer Entwicklungsstadien und ist damit Vorreiter auf dem Gebiet der forensischen Entomologie.
Neuropogonoid species in the lichen-forming fungal genus Usnea exhibit great morphological variation that can be misleading for delimitation of species. We specifically focused on the species delimitation of two closely-related, predominantly Antarctic species differing in the reproductive mode and representing a so-called species pair: the asexual U. antarctica and the sexual U. aurantiacoatra. Previous studies have revealed contradicting results. While multi-locus studies based on DNA sequence data provided evidence that these two taxa might be conspecific, microsatellite data suggested they represent distinct lineages. By using RADseq, we generated thousands of homologous markers to build a robust phylogeny of the two species. Furthermore, we successfully implemented these data in fine-scale population genomic analyses such as DAPC and fineRADstructure. Both Usnea species are readily delimited in phylogenetic inferences and, therefore, the hypothesis that both species are conspecific was rejected. Population genomic analyses also strongly confirmed separated genomes and, additionally, showed different levels of co-ancestry and substructure within each species. Lower co-ancestry in the asexual U. antarctica than in the sexual U. aurantiacoatra may be derived from a wider distributional range of the former species. Our results demonstrate the utility of this RADseq method in tracing population dynamics of lichens in future analyses.
Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurden sRNAs des halophilen Archaeons Haloferax volcanii hinsichtlich ihrer biologischen und ihrer regulatorischen Funktion charakterisiert.
Um einen Überblick über die biologischen Funktionen archaealer sRNAs zu erhalten, wurde eine umfassende phänotypische Charakterisierung von 27 sRNA-Deletionsmutanten im Vergleich zum Wildtyp ausgewertet. Im Zuge dieser phänotypischen Charakterisierungen wurden zehn verschiedene Wachstumsbedingungen, morphologische Unterschiede und Veränderungen in der Zellmotilität untersucht. Hierbei zeigten nahezu alle Deletionsmutanten unter mindestens einer der getesteten Bedingungen phänotypische Unterschiede. Durch den Verlust von sRNAs wurden sowohl sogenannte Gain-of-function als auch Loss-of-function Phänotypen beobachtet. Haloarchaeale sRNAs spielen eine wichtige Rolle beim Wachstum mit verschiedenen Salzkonzentrationen, mit verschiedenen Kohlenstoffquellen und beim Schwärmverhalten, sind jedoch weniger in die Adaptation an diverse Stressbedingungen involviert.
Zur näheren Charakterisierung der regulatorischen Funktion archaealer sRNAs wurden sRNA362, sRNAhtsf468 und sRNA479 mittels molekulargenetischer Methoden wie Northern Blot-Analyse und DNA-Mikroarray sowie bioinformatischer in silico-Analyse untersucht. Das Expressionslevel von sRNA362 konnte bestimmt und potentielle Zielgene für sRNAhtsf468 und sRNA479 identifiziert werden.
Eine vorangegangene Studie zeigte den Einfluss von sRNA30 unter Hitzestress und führte zur Identifikation differentiell produzierter Proteine in Abwesenheit der sRNA. In dieser Arbeit wurde mittels Northern Blot-Analysen die Expression der sRNA30 charakterisiert. Das Wachstum in An- und Abwesenheit von sRNA30 wurde bei 42°C und 51°C phänotypisch charakterisiert und der regulatorische Einfluss der sRNA auf die mRNA differentiell regulierter Proteine durch Northern Blot-Analyse überprüft. Eine Transkriptomanalyse mittels DNA-Mikroarray nach Hitzeschock-Induktion führte zur Identifikation differentiell regulierter Gene involviert in Transportprozesse, Metabolismus, Transkriptionsregulation und die Expression anderer sRNAs. Die differentielle Regulation des Proteoms nach Hitzeschockinduktion in An- und Abwesenheit von sRNA30 konnte bestätigt werden.
Desweiteren wurde in dieser Arbeit sRNA132 und deren phosphatabhängige Regulation der Ziel-mRNA HVO_A0477-80 näher charakterisiert. Eine Induktionskinetik nach Phosphatentzug bestätigte die Bedeutung von sRNA132 für die verstärkte Expression des Operons HVO_A0477-80 unter Phosphatmangel-Bedingungen und verwies auf die Existenz weiterer Regulationsmechanismen. Während vor und nach Phosphatentzug kein Unterschied bezüglich der Zellmorphologie von Wildtyp und Deletionsmutante zu erkennen war, führte das Wachstum mit einem starken Phosphatüberschuss von 5 mM zu einer Zellverlängerung der Deletionsmutante. Die Kompetition der nativen 3‘-UTR des Operons HVO_A0477-80 mit einer Vektor-kodierten artifiziellen 3‘-UTR legt eine Regulation über die Bindung von sRNA132 an die 3‘-UTR nahe. Der Transkriptomvergleich nach Phosphatentzug in An- und Abwesenheit von sRNA132 führte zur Identifikation des Phosphoregulons der sRNA. Zu diesem Phosphoregulon gehören unter anderem zwei Glycerinphosphat-Dehydrogenasen, Transkriptionsregulatoren, eine Polyphosphatkinase und eine Glycerolphosphodiesterase. Zudem waren die Transkriptlevel der beiden ABC-Transporter HVO_A0477-80 und HVO_2375-8 für anorganisches Phosphat und des Transporters HVO_B0292-5 für Glycerinaldehyd-3-Phosphat in Abwesenheit der sRNA verringert. Die beiden ABC-Transportsysteme für anorganisches Phosphat wurden im Rahmen dieser Arbeit deletiert und weiter charakterisiert. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass das ABC-Transportsystem HVO_2375-8 bei geringen Phosphatkonzentrationen leicht induziert wird und das Transkriptlevel in Anwesenheit von sRNA132 erhöht ist. Wachstumsversuche der jeweiligen Deletionsmutante in direkter Konkurrenz mit dem Wildtyp zeigten, dass keiner der beiden ABC-Transporter den anderen vollständig ersetzen kann und der Wildtyp mit beiden intakten ABC-Transportern unter phosphatlimitierenden Bedingungen einen Wachstumsvorteil besitzt. In silico-Analysen der Promotorbereiche von sRNA und ABC-Transporter legen zudem die Existenz von P-Boxen nahe.
The website Sci-Hub enables users to download PDF versions of scholarly articles, including many articles that are paywalled at their journal’s site. Sci-Hub has grown rapidly since its creation in 2011, but the extent of its coverage was unclear. Here we report that, as of March 2017, Sci-Hub’s database contains 68.9% of the 81.6 million scholarly articles registered with Crossref and 85.2% of articles published in toll access journals. We find that coverage varies by discipline and publisher and that Sci-Hub preferentially covers popular, paywalled content. For toll access articles, green open access via licit services is quite limited, while Sci-Hub provides greater coverage than a major research university. Our interactive browser at https://greenelab.github.io/scihub allows users to explore these findings in more detail. For the first time, nearly all scholarly literature is available gratis to anyone with an Internet connection, suggesting the toll access business model will become unsustainable.
Cells within a tissue form highly complex, cellular interactions. This architecture is lost in twodimensional cell cultures. To close the gap between two-dimensional cell cultures and in vivo tissues, three-dimensional cell cultures were developed. Three-dimensional cellular aggregates such as spheroids, organoids, or embryoid bodies have been established as an essential tool in many different aspects of life science, including tumour biology, drug screening and embryonic development. To fully take advantage of the third dimension, imaging techniques are essential. The emerging field of “imagebased systems biology” exploits the information in images and builds a connection between experimental and theoretical investigation of biological processes at a spatio-temporal level. Such interdisciplinary approaches strongly depend on the development of protocols to establish threedimensional cell cultures, innovations in sample preparation, well-suited imaging techniques and quantitative segmentation methods.
Although three-dimensional cell cultures and image-based systems biology provide a great potential, two-dimensional methods are still not completely replaced by three-dimensional methods. The knowledge about many biological processes relies on two-dimensional experiments. This is mainly due to methodical and technical hurdles. Therefore, this thesis provides a significant contribution to overcome these hurdles and to further develop three-dimensional cell cultures. I established computational as well as experimental methods related to three-dimensional cellular aggregates and investigated fundamental, cellular processes such as adhesion, growth and differentiation.
Impact of F1Fo-ATP-synthase dimer assembly factors on mitochondrial function and organismic aging
(2018)
In aerobic organisms, mitochondrial F1Fo-ATP-synthase is the major site of ATP production. Beside this fundamental role, the protein complex is involved in shaping and maintenance of cristae. Previous electron microscopic studies identified the dissociation of F1Fo-ATP-synthase dimers and oligomers during organismic aging correlating with a massive remodeling of the mitochondrial inner membrane. Here we report results aimed to experimentally proof this impact and to obtain further insights into the control of these processes. We focused on the role of the two dimer assembly factors PaATPE and PaATPG of the aging model Podospora anserina. Ablation of either protein strongly affects mitochondrial function and leads to an accumulation of senescence markers demonstrating that the inhibition of dimer formation negatively influences vital functions and accelerates organismic aging. Our data validate a model that links mitochondrial membrane remodeling to aging and identify specific molecular components triggering this process.
Heat stress transcription factors (Hsfs) have an essential role in heat stress response (HSR) and thermotolerance by controlling the expression of hundreds of genes including heat shock proteins (Hsps) with molecular chaperone functions. Hsf family in plants shows a striking multiplicity, with more than 20 members in many species. In Solanum lycopersicum HsfA1a was reported to act as the master regulator of the onset of HSR and therefore is essential for basal thermotolerance. Evidence for this was provided by the analysis of HsfA1a co-suppression (A1CS) transgenic plants, which exhibited hypersensitivity upon exposure to heat stress (HS) due to the inability of the plants to induce the expression of many HS-genes including HsfA2, HsfB1 and several Hsps. Completion of tomato genome sequencing allowed the completion of the Hsf inventory, which is consisted of 27 members, including another three HsfA1 genes, namely HsfA1b, HsfA1c and HsfA1e.
Consequently, the suppression effect of the short interference RNA in A1CS lin e was re-evaluated for all HsfA1 genes. We found that expression of all HsfA1 proteins was suppressed in A1CS protoplasts. This result suggested that the model of single master regulator needs to be re-examined.
Expression analysis revealed that HsfA1a is constitutively expressed in different tissues and in response to HS, while HsfA1c and HsfA1e are minimally expressed in general, and show an induction during fruit ripening and a weak upregulation in late HSR. Instead HsfA1b shows preferential expression in specific tissues and is strongly and rapidly induced in response to HS. At the protein level HsfA1b and HsfA1e are rapidly degraded while HsfA1a and HsfA1c show a higher stability. In addition, HsfA1a and HsfA1c show a nucleocytosolic distribution, while HsfA1b and HsfA1e a strong nuclear retention.
A major property of a master regulator in HSR is thought to be its ability to cause a strong transactivation of a wide range of genes required for the initial activation of protective mechanisms. GUS reporter assays as well as analysis of transcript levels of several endogenous transcripts in protoplasts transiently expressing HsfA1 proteins revealed that HsfA1a can stimulate the transcription of many genes, while the other Hsfs have weaker activity and only on limited set of target genes. The low activity of HsfA1c and HsfA1e can be attributed to the lower DNA capacity of the two factors as judged by a GUS reporter repressor assay.
HsfA1a has been shown to have synergistic activity with the stress induced HsfA2 and HsfB1. The formation of such complexes is considered as important for stimulation of transcription and long term stress adaptation. All HsfA1 members show synergistic activity with HsfA2, while only HsfA1a act as co-activator of HsfB1 and HsfA7. Interestingly, HsfA1b shows an exceptional synergistic activity with HsfA3, suggesting that different Hsf complexes might regulate different HS-related gene networks. Altogether these results suggest that HsfA1a has unique characteristics within HsfA1 subfamily. This result is interesting considering the very high sequencing similarity among HsfA1s, and particularly among HsfA1a and HsfA1c.
To understand the molecular basis of this discrepancy, a series of domain swapping mutants between HsfA1a and HsfA1c were generated. Oligomerization domain and C-terminal swaps did not affect the basal activity or co-activity of the proteins. Remarkably, an HsfA1a mutant harbouring the N-terminus of HsfA1c shows reduced activity and co-activity, while the reciprocal HsfA1c with the N-terminus of HsfA1a cause a gain of activity and enhanced DNA binding capacity.
Sequence analysis of the DBD of HsfA1 proteins revealed a divergence in the highly conserved C-terminus of the turn of β3-β4 sheet. As the vast majority of HsfA1 proteins, HsfA1a at this position comprises an Arg residue (R107), while HsfA1c a Leu and HsfA1e a Cys. An HsfA1a-R107L mutant has reduced DNA binding capacity and consequently activity. Therefore, the results presented here point to the essential function of this amino acid residue for DNA binding function. Interestingly, the mutation did not affect the activity of the protein on Hsp70-1, suggesting that the functionality of the DBD and consequently the transcription factor on different promoters with variable heat stress element number and architecture is dependent on structural peculiarities of the DBD.
In conclusion, the unique properties including expression pattern, transcriptional activities, stability, DBD-peculiarities are likely responsible for the dominant function of HsfA1a as a master regulator of HSR in tomato. Instead, other HsfA1-members are only participating in HSR or developmental regulations by regulating a specific set of genes. Furthermore, HsfA1b and HsfA1e are likely function as stress primers in specific tissues while HsfA1c as a co-regulator in mild HSR. Thereby, tomato subclass A1 presents another example of function diversity not only within the Hsf family but also within the Hsf-subfamily of closely related members. The diversification based on DBD peculiarities is likely to occur in potato as well. Therefore this might have eliminated the functional redundancy observed in other species such as Arabidopsis thaliana but has probably allowed the more refined regulation of Hsf networks possibly under different stress regimes, tissues and cell types.
Many cellular processes are regulated via pH, and maintaining the pH of different organelles is crucial for cell survival. A pH-sensitive GFP variant, the so-called pHluorin, has proven to be a valuable tool to study the pH of the cytosol, mitochondria and other organelles in vivo. We found that the fluorescence intensity of Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)-targeted pHluorin in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae was very low and barely showed pH sensitivity, probably due to misfolding in the oxidative environment of the ER. We therefore developed a superfolder variant of pHluorin which enabled us to monitor pH changes in the ER and the cytosol of S. cerevisiae in vivo. The superfolder pHluorin variant is likely to be functional in cells of different organisms as well as in additional compartments that originate from the secretory pathway like the Golgi apparatus and pre-vacuolar compartments, and therefore has a broad range of possible future applications.
Hämophilie A ist eine X-chromosomal rezessiv vererbte Krankheit, die aufgrund von Mutationen innerhalb des Gens von Gerinnungsfaktor VIII (FVIII) zum funktionellen Defekt oder zum Fehlen des körpereigenen FVIII führt. FVIII zirkuliert als Heterodimer und besteht aus einer schweren Kette mit der Domänenstruktur A1-A2-B und einer leichten Kette mit der Domänenstruktur A3-C1-C2. Bei Patienten unter Prophylaxe wird durch regelmäßige Substitution mit rekombinanten oder aus Plasma gewonnenen FVIII-Präparaten die Hämostase wiederhergestellt. Allerdings entwickeln hierbei etwa 30% der Patienten mit einer schweren Hämophilie eine FVIII-spezifische Immunantwort in Form von neutralisierenden Antikörpern (Inhibitoren). Die sogenannte Immuntoleranz-Therapie (engl. immune tolerance induction therapy, ITI) ist bisher die einzige etablierte Therapie, die zu einer dauerhaften Eradikation der FVIII-Inhibitoren und Induktion von Toleranz gegenüber FVIII führen kann. Die Therapie beruht auf einer meist täglichen Gabe hoher FVIII-Dosen, welche sich, je nach Behandlungsdauer, über Wochen bis hin zu Jahren erstrecken kann. Bei etwa 30% der Patienten ist diese Therapie nicht erfolgreich. Für solche Patienten besteht die Gefahr lebensbedrohlicher, unkontrollierbarer Blutungen und erheblicher Gelenkschäden.
Die spezifische Ansteuerung des Membran-gebundenen Immunglobulin G (mIg) des B-Zellrezeptors (BZR) mithilfe von Immuntoxinen ist eine mögliche Option zur selektiven Eliminierung FVIII-spezifischer B-Zellen und somit zur Eradikation von FVIII-Inhibitoren. Solche Immuntoxine bestehen aus einer zellbindenden und einer zytotoxischen Domäne, welche nach Internalisierung zur Apoptose der Zielzelle führen soll. Da FVIII aufgrund der Größe als zellbindende Domäne ungeeignet ist, beschäftigt sich die vorliegende Arbeit mit der Entwicklung und Evaluierung alternativer Immuntoxine zur selektiven Eliminierung FVIII-spezifischer B-Zellen. Die FVIII-spezifische Immunantwort ist zwar polyklonal, jedoch vor allem gegen A2- und die C2-Domäne gerichtet. Aus diesem Grund wurden die humane A2- und C2-Domäne (hA2, hC2) als zellbindende Domäne verwendet und jeweils genetisch an eine verkürzte Version des Exotoxin A (ETA) aus Pseudomonas aeruginosa fusioniert, bei welcher die natürliche zellbindende Domäne entfernt wurde. Die rekombinanten Proteine wurden bakteriell produziert und im Anschluss an die Aufreinigung biochemisch charakterisiert. Während das bakterielle Expressionssystem für hA2-ETA nicht geeignet war, konnte hC2-ETA neben weiteren Kontrollproteinen mit korrekter Konformation der hC2-Domäne hergestellt und aufgereinigt werden.
Die Fähigkeit zur selektiven Eliminierung hC2-spezifischer B-Zellen wurde im weiteren Verlauf sowohl in vitro mithilfe einer hC2-spezifischen Hybridomazelllinie als auch ex vivo und in vivo mithilfe von Splenozyten aus FVIII-immunisierten FVIII-knockout Mäusen untersucht.
Durch Inkubation der hC2-spezifischen Hybridomazelllinie mit hC2-ETA konnten ca. 38 % der Zellen eliminiert werden. Weitere Untersuchungen der Zelllinie ergaben, dass diese keinen vollständigen funktionalen B-Zellrezeptor auf der Oberfläche exprimierte, welcher für die Bindung und die korrekte Internalisierung des Immuntoxins notwendig ist. Aufgrund dessen eignet sich diese Zelllinie nicht als Modell für eine genauere Analyse der in vitro Eliminierungseffizienz von hC2-ETA.
Weitere Analysen mithilfe von Splenozyten aus FVIII-immunisierten FVIII-knockout Mäusen haben jedoch gezeigt, dass durch ex vivo Inkubation der Splenozyten mit hC2-ETA, alle hC2-spezifischen B-Zellen vollständig, selektiv und konzentrations-abhängig eliminiert werden konnten. Auch die mehrfache Applikation von hC2-ETA in FVIII-immunisierten FVIII-knockout Mäusen führte bei der Hälfte der Tiere zur vollständigen Eliminierung aller hC2-spezifischen B-Zellen. Eine Reduktion des hC2-spezifischen Antikörpersignals konnte nach Gabe von hC2-ETA in allen behandelten Tieren beobachtet werden. Die unvollständige Eliminierung in der Hälfte der Tiere ist vermutlich auf die Präsenz hC2-spezifischer Antikörper zurückzuführen, die einen Teil des applizierten Immuntoxins neutralisiert haben, sodass nicht alle hC2-spezifischen Gedächtnis-B-Zellen erreicht und eliminiert werden konnten. Um die Eliminierungseffizienz von hC2-ETA weiter zu erhöhen, müsste das Behandlungsprotokoll geändert werden. Sowohl eine Verlängerung des Behandlungszeitraums als auch eine kombinierte Therapie aus FVIII und hC2-ETA sollte zu einer erhöhten Bioverfügbarkeit des Toxins und dadurch zu einer gesteigerten Eliminierungseffizienz führen.
Die Ausweitung des hier vorgestellten Ansatzes auf weitere FVIII-Domänen ist generell möglich, jedoch muss hierzu ein alternatives Expressionssystem aufgrund des eukaryotischen Ursprungs von FVIII in Betracht gezogen werden. Die hier vorgestellten Ergebnisse zeigen dennoch, dass FVIII-Domänen-Immuntoxine ein wirkungsvolles Mittel sind, um FVIII-spezifische B-Zellen selektiv zu eliminieren. Die Anpassung der Gabe von FVIII-Domänen-Immuntoxinen an die individuelle Immunantwort des Patienten könnte das Auftreten von Nebenwirkungen minimieren. Außerdem könnte eine kombinierte Therapie aus ITI und FVIII-Domänen-Immuntoxinen die Zeit bis zur Induktion von Toleranz verkürzen und die Chancen für den generellen Therapieerfolg erhöhen.
Smut fungi (Ustilaginomycotina) were previously defined as plant parasites that produced blackish or brownish masses of teliospores in or on various organs of plants. Each teliospore germinates to form a single basidium with usually four basidiospores that subsequently grow as a saprobic, yeast-like, haploid stage. The Ustilaginomycotina are a highly diverse group with about 1,700 species in 115 different genera. All of the species were united in a single order, the Ustilaginales, in late 19th century. These teliospore producing fungi are now considered the classic smut fungi. Towards the end of the 20th century, new ideas were brought into this classification system. Most notable was the comparative work regarding the ultrastructure of septal pores and the anatomy of the interaction zones between host and parasite. This work changed the whole concept of smut fungi and their evolutionary relationships. These results were subsequently supported by molecular phylogenetic studies. Both lines of investigation led to the classification of the smut fungi into four different classes, Ustilaginomycetes, Exobasidiomycetes, Malasseziomycetes and Moniliellomycetes (see chapter 1.3).
A reliable taxonomy that reflects phylogenies needed in order to estimate the diversity and the relationships between the diverse groups of smut fungi. In the last 20 years, molecular investigations based mostly on rDNA loci, e.g. ITS (internal transcribed spacer) or LSU (large subunit), have revealed the evolutionary relationships between many taxa of smut fungi. However, there are few phylogenetic studies available for smut fungi (see chapter 1.5.1), and much work is needed to develop backbone phylogenetic trees and to resolve species complexes of many smut fungi.
This thesis reports the results of six different studies that aimed to develop new and improved tools for the phylogenetic analyses of smut fungi, and then apply these methods to selected groups of smut fungi. The first study (Kruse et al. 2017a, Chapter 3) developed a method to improve the amplification of ITS sequences of some smut fungi. Due to its high discrimination value, the ITS gene region is widely used as a barcoding locus for species delimitation of fungi. For this purpose, the general ITS primers ITS1 and ITS4 or more specific modifications, e.g. ITS1F for Ascomycota, ITS4B for Basidiomycota or M-ITS1 for smut fungi, were used. As these primer combinations often yielded unsatisfactory results, due to coamplification of other (contaminant) fungi or the host plant DNA, improvement of the amplification of the ITS region was needed. In order to design new smut specific primers for the ITS region, a representative set of several sequences of the flanking regions of the ITS region (LSU and SSU) of smut fungi, plants and other fungi were downloaded from GenBank. A set of primers was designed on this dataset. These primers were tested on a representative set of about 70 different smut genera under different PCR conditions. Finally, three different primers, one forward primer, smITS-F, and two reverse primers, smITS-R1 and -R2, were selected as the best ones. The following tests with different combinations of these primers, and also under inclusion of the M-ITS1 primer, showed only slight differences in the number of different genera that successfully amplified. But there were some differences regarding the genera that amplified. A broader test on 205 samples in 39 genera showed that the PCR efficiency of the newly designed primers was much better than the primer set ITS4/M-ITS1. With the primers designed in this study almost no non-target ITS was amplified, giving new opportunities especially for amplifying ancient DNA or DNA from older herbarium samples. However, many species groups remain unresolved by only one gene region.
The second study (Kruse et al. 2017c, Chapter 4) found new loci and suitable primers that better resolved multi-locus trees. To date, the most frequently used loci for making multi-locus trees are SSU (small subunit), LSU (large subunit) and ITS (internal transcribed spacer). While the LSU is not always sufficient to distinguish between closely related species, it is highly discriminative above the species level. In an effort to increase the phylogenetic resolution of smut phylogenies, some protein-coding genes were used, including rpb1, rpb2, and atp6 with varying success (see Chapter 2.1.2). As most of these loci are seldom used or sometimes only work on pure cultures because of their low specifity, new protein-coding loci were identified that produced reliable phylogenetic trees. Based on five available genomes, potential gene loci were filtered for possible primers. Initially, 40 different primer combinations for 14 gene loci were tested on a set of twelve different genera of smut fungi. The best candidates were selected and optimized during further tests. Finally, 22 different forward primers and 17 different reverse primers for nine different gene regions were developed, with each differentiating at least one genus of smut fungi (preferably for Ustilaginomycetes). The different primers showed varying discriminative power for different smut genera. They worked best for the Ustilaginaceae, based on the primer designed from Ustilaginomycetes genomes. These new primer sets and loci have the potential to resolve different species groups within the smut fungi and furthermore to produce reliable phylogenetic trees with high resolution. To prove their applicability, three species complexes were investigated in-depth, two from the Ustilaginomycetes and one from the Exobasidiomycetes.
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Endangered species of hosts are coupled with endangered species of parasites, which share the risk of co-extinction. Conservation efforts sometimes include breeding of rare species in captivity. Data on parasites of captive populations of endangered species is scarce and the ability of small numbers of captive host individuals to support the biodiversity of native parasites is limited. Examination of ectosymbionts of the critically endangered Philippine eagles and the endangered Mindanao Hawk-Eagle kept at the Philippine Eagle Center, Philippines, revealed three feather mite species despite regular treatment with insecticide powder. No other ectosymbiont taxa were detected. Studies in morphology and molecular phylogeny of these feather mites based on mitochondrial and nuclear DNA markers indicate that species found were typical for Accipitridae. Three new pterolichoid feather mite species (Acari: Pterolichoidea) were described from two species of eagles (Accipitriformes: Accipitridae) endemic to the Philippines: Hieracolichus philippinensis sp. n. (Gabuciniidae) and Pseudalloptinus pithecophagae sp. n. (Pterolichidae) from the Great Philippine Eagle Pithecophaga jefferyi Ogilvie-Grant, 1896, and Pseudogabucinia nisaeti sp. n. (Kramerellidae) from the Mindanao Hawk-Eagle Nisaetus pinskeri Gould, 1863. The presence of H. philippinensis on P. jefferyi supports the recent finding that the Great Philippine Eagle belongs to the lineage of serpent eagles (Circaetinae) rather than to the Harpy and other eagles.
In the insect brain, the mushroom body is a higher order brain area that is key to memory formation and sensory processing. Mushroom body (MB) extrinsic neurons leaving the output region of the MB, the lobes and the peduncle, are thought to be especially important in these processes. In the honeybee brain, a distinct class of MB extrinsic neurons, A3 neurons, are implicated in playing a role in learning. Their MB arborisations are either restricted to the lobes and the peduncle, here called A3 lobe connecting neurons, or they provide feedback information from the lobes to the input region of the MB, the calyces, here called A3 feedback neurons. In this study, we analyzed the morphology of individual A3 lobe connecting and feedback neurons using confocal imaging. A3 feedback neurons were previously assumed to innervate each lip compartment homogenously. We demonstrate here that A3 feedback neurons do not innervate whole subcompartments, but rather innervate zones of varying sizes in the MB lip, collar, and basal ring. We describe for the first time the anatomical details of A3 lobe connecting neurons and show that their connection pattern in the lobes resemble those of A3 feedback cells. Previous studies showed that A3 feedback neurons mostly connect zones of the vertical lobe that receive input from Kenyon cells of distinct calycal subcompartments with the corresponding subcompartments of the calyces. We can show that this also applies to the neck of the peduncle and the medial lobe, where both types of A3 neurons arborize only in corresponding zones in the calycal subcompartments. Some A3 lobe connecting neurons however connect multiple vertical lobe areas. Contrarily, in the medial lobe, the A3 neurons only innervate one division. We found evidence for both input and output areas in the vertical lobe. Thus, A3 neurons are more diverse than previously thought. The understanding of their detailed anatomy might enable us to derive circuit models for learning and memory and test physiological data.
A full understanding of the origin, formation and degradation of volatile compounds that contribute to wine aroma is required before wine style can be effectively managed. Fractionation of grapes represents a convenient and robust method to simplify the grape matrix to enhance our understanding of the grape contribution to volatile compound production during yeast fermentation. In this study, acetone extracts of both Riesling and Cabernet Sauvignon grape berries were fractionated and model wines produced by spiking aliquots of these grape fractions into model grape juice must and fermented. Non-targeted SPME-GCMS analyses of the wines showed that several medium chain fatty acid ethyl esters were more abundant in wines made by fermenting model musts spiked with certain fractions. Further fractionation of the non-polar fractions and fermentation of model must after addition of these fractions led to the identification of a mixture of polyunsaturated triacylglycerides that, when added to fermenting model must, increase the concentration of medium chain fatty acid ethyl esters in wines. Dosage-response fermentation studies with commercially-available trilinolein revealed that the concentration of medium chain fatty acid ethyl esters can be increased by the addition of this triacylglyceride to model musts. This work suggests that grape triacylglycerides can enhance the production of fermentation-derived ethyl esters and show that this fractionation method is effective in segregating precursors or factors involved in altering the concentration of fermentation volatiles.
Acinetobacter baumannii is a nosocomial pathogen which can persist in the hospital environment not only due to the acquirement of multiple antibiotic resistances, but also because of its exceptional resistance against disinfectants and desiccation. A suitable desiccation assay was established in which A. baumannii ATCC 19606T survived for ca. 1 month. The growth medium slightly influenced survival after subsequent desiccation. A significant effect could be attributed to the growth phase in which bacteria were dried: In exponential phase, cells were much more desiccation sensitive. The main focus of the present study was the elucidation of the role of compatible solutes, which are known to protect many bacteria under low water activity conditions, in desiccation survival of A. baumannii. Exogenous trehalose was shown to efficiently protect A. baumannii on dry surfaces, in contrast to other compatible solutes tested such as mannitol or glycine betaine. To analyze the importance of intracellularly accumulated solutes, a double mutant lacking biosynthesis pathways for mannitol and trehalose was generated. This mutant accumulated glutamate as sole solute in the presence of high NaCl concentrations and showed severe growth defects under osmotic stress conditions. However, no effect on desiccation tolerance could be seen, neither when cells were dried in water nor in the presence of NaCl.
Lizards of Paraguay: an integrative approach to solve taxonomic problems in central South America
(2018)
Paraguay is located in the center of South America with drier and warmer climatic conditions in the western part of the country, and more temperate and humid in the eastern region. Biogeographically, Paraguay is a key spot in South America, where several ecoregions converge. In my study, I sampled most of the ecoregions of Paraguay. The main objective of my work is to solve taxonomic problems, identified through genetic barcoding analyses, in the central region of South America. To achieve this objective, I used selected taxa of the Paraguayan Squamata as models taking into consideration the crucial geographic position of the country, plus the scarce available genetic data of Paraguayan reptiles.
The collecting activities were performed in the framework of a barcoding inventory project of the Paraguayan herpetofauna and carried out mostly in rural areas searching for animals in different types of habitats using active search as the sampling technique.
For genetics, the extraction of DNA was performed with DNeasy® Blood & Tissue Kit of Qiagen® for sets of few samples, and the fiber glass plate protocol for sets of 96 samples. I assessed the quality of sequences after amplification in agarose gel electrophoresis. The first marker sequenced was 16S mtDNA, used for barcoding analysis. A DNA barcode is a genetic identifier for a species. Once a taxonomic problem was detected, I generate more gene sequences to target the issue.
All the analyses to test phylogenetic hypotheses (based on single genes or concatenated datasets) were performed under Maximum Likelihood and Bayesian approaches. To root the phylogenetic trees, I chose the available taxon (or taxa) most closely related to the respective studied group as outgroups. For the general tree of Paraguayan Squamata, based on barcodes of 16S, I chose Sphenodon punctatus.
I generated a total of 142 sequences of 64 species of Squamata from Paraguay (Appendix I). The final alignment of 615 bp comprised 249 samples. The best substitution model for the Barcoding dataset based on the gene 16S was GTR+G, according to the BIC.
To complement molecular evidence generated with the ML grouping of 16S barcodes, I took a morphological approach based on voucher specimens collected during fieldwork (usually the same specimens that I used for genetic analysis), supplemented by the revision of museum collections.
Summarizing my results, samples of Colobosaura exhibit large genetic distances, and accordingly I revalidated Colobosaura kraepelini (Appendix II). Tropidurus of the spinulosus group show two clades and among them there is little genetic and morphological variation, I synonymized T. tarara and T. teyumirim with T. lagunablanca, and T. guarani with T. spinulosus (Appendix III). I detected the presence of candidate species of Homonota, and I restricted the name H. horrida for Argentina, and described two new species of Homonota (Appendices IV and V), and a new species of Phyllopezus also in the Family Phyllodactylidae (Appendix VI).
In this work I present the most comprehensive analysis of genetic samples of Squamata from Paraguay. The results obtained here will be useful to help to clarify further taxonomic issues regarding the squamate fauna from the central region of South America. Moreover, the data generated for this study will have a positive impact in a larger geographic context, beyond Paraguayan borders.
Regarding the conservation of the Paraguayan reptiles, and considering the taxonomic changes accomplished here, it is important to note that many species lack legal protection. In Paraguay, the major problem for conservation is habitat loss due to extensive crop farming. Thus, currently, the protected areas are the best strategy for conservation of biodiversity in the country. However, many such areas face legal problems (e.g., lack of official measurements, management plans, forest guards, infrastructure, etc.) so that the maintenance of their biodiversity over time is not guaranteed.
In conclusion, in this study I present contributions on the taxonomy of mostly lizards from Paraguay. Due to lack of samples, I was not able to deal with a deep taxonomic revision of the country's snakes. Based on my results, I can argue that analyses of Xenodontini and Pseudoboini are currently a pressing research issue. This barcoding project may continue since some colleagues in Paraguay are interested in collaboration. Given that the sequenced specimens are yet a small portion of the actual diversity of Paraguay, it will be of utmost importance to continue and expand these studies that will further improve our taxonomic knowledge. Furthermore, it is desirable to have Paraguayan scientists not only involved, but to see them taking the lead of high quality taxonomic research.
Heat stress transcription factors (Hsfs) are required for transcriptional changes during heat stress (HS) thereby playing a crucial role in the heat stress response (HSR). The target genes of Hsfs include heat shock proteins (Hsps), other Hsfs and genes involved in protection of the cell from irreversible damages due to exposure to elevated temperatures. Among 27 Hsfs in Solanum lycopersicum, HsfA1a, HsfA2 and HsfB1 constitute a functional triad which regulates important aspects of the HSR. HsfA1a is constitutively expressed and described as the master regulator of stress response and thermotolerance. Activation of HsfA1a under elevated temperatures leads to the induction of HsfA2 and HsfB1 which further stimulate the transcription of HS-responsive genes by forming highly active complexes with HsfA1a. Despite the well-established role of these three Hsfs in tomato HSR, information about functional relevance of other Hsfs is currently missing.
The heat stress inducible HsfA7 belongs alongside with HsfA2 to a phylogenetically distinct clade. Thereby the two proteins share high homology and a functional redundancy has been assumed. However, HsfA7 function and contribution to stress responses have not been investigated into detail in any plant species.
Tomato HsfA7 protein accumulates already at moderately elevated temperatures (~35°C) while HsfA2 becomes dominant at higher temperatures (>40°C). HsfA7 pre-mRNA undergoes complex and temperature-dependent alternative splicing resulting in several transcripts that encode for three protein isoforms. HsfA7-I contains a functional nuclear export signal (NES) and shows nucleocytoplasmic shuttling while HsfA7-II and HsfA7-III have a truncated NES which leads to the strong nuclear retention of the protein. Differences in the nucleocytoplasmic equilibrium have a major impact on the stability of protein isoforms, as nuclear retention is associated with increased protein turnover. Consequently, HsfA7-I shows a higher stability and can be detected even after 24 hours of stress attenuation, while HsfA7-II is rapidly degraded. The degradation of these factors is mediated by the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway.
HsfA7 can physically interact with HsfA1a and HsfA3 and form co-activator (“superactivator”) complexes with a very high transcriptional activity as shown on different HS-inducible promoters. In order for the complex to be successfully transferred to the nucleus and confer its activity it needs a functional nuclear localization signal (NLS) of HsfA7. In contrast, the activator (AHA) motif of HsfA7 is not essential for its co-activator function. Interestingly, while interaction of HsfA7 with either HsfA3 or HsfA1a stabilizes HsfA7 isoforms, concomitantly this leads to an increased turnover of HsfA1a and HsfA3. In contrast, HsfA2 has a stabilizing effect on the master regulator HsfA1a.
Thus, HsfA7 knockout mutants generated by CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing, show increased HsfA1a levels and a stronger induction of HS-related genes at 35°C compared to wild-type plants and HsfA2 knockout mutants. Consequently, HsfA7 knockout seedlings exhibit increased thermotolerance as shown by the enhanced hypocotyl elongation under a prolonged mild stress treatment at 35°C. In summary, these results highlight the importance of HsfA7 in regulation of cellular responses at elevated temperatures. Under moderately elevated temperatures, the accumulation of HsfA7 and its subsequent interaction with HsfA1a, leads to increased turnover of the latter, thereby ensuring a milder transcriptional activation of temperature-responsive genes like Hsps. In turn, in response to further elevated temperatures, HsfA2 becomes the dominant stress-induced Hsf. HsfA2 forms co-activator complexes with HsfA1a which in contrast to HsfA7, allows the stabilization of the master regulator, leading to the stronger expression of HS-responsive genes required for survival. Thereby, this study uncovers a new regulatory mechanism, where the temperature-dependent competitive interaction of HsfA2 and HsfA7 with HsfA1a control the fate of the master regulator and consequently the activity of temperature-responsive networks.
The marine hydrocarbonoclastic bacterium Alcanivorax borkumensis is well known for its ability to successfully degrade various mixtures of n-alkanes occurring in marine oil spills. For effective growth on these compounds, the bacteria possess the unique capability not only to incorporate but also to modify fatty intermediates derived from the alkane degradation pathway. High efficiency of both these processes provides better competitiveness for a single bacteria species among hydrocarbon degraders. To examine the efficiency of A. borkumensis to cope with different sources of fatty acid intermediates, we studied the growth rates and membrane fatty acid patterns of this bacterium cultivated on diesel, biodiesel and rapeseed oil as carbon and energy source. Obtained results revealed significant differences in both parameters depending on growth substrate. Highest growth rates were observed with biodiesel, while growth rates on rapeseed oil and diesel were lower than on the standard reference compound (hexadecane). The most remarkable observation is that cells grown on rapeseed oil, biodiesel, and diesel showed significant amounts of the two polyunsaturated fatty acids linoleic acid and linolenic acid in their membrane. By direct incorporation of these external fatty acids, the bacteria save energy allowing them to degrade those pollutants in a more efficient way. Such fast adaptation may increase resilience of A. borkumensis and allow them to strive and maintain populations in more complex hydrocarbon degrading microbial communities.