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The SENECA model, a new hybrid approach to air shower simulations, is presented. It combines the use of efficient cascade equations in the energy range where a shower can be treated as one-dimensional, with a traditional Monte Carlo method which traces individual particles. This allows one to reproduce natural fluctuations of individual showers as well as the lateral spread of low energy particles. The model is quite efficient in computation time. As an application of the new approach, the influence of the low energy hadronic models on shower properties for AUGER energies is studied. We conclude that these models have a significant impact on the tails of lateral distribution functions, and deserve therefore more attention.
A micro-canonical treatment is used to study particle production in pp collisions. First this micro-canonical treatment is compared to some canonical ones. Then proton, antiproton and pion 4 pi multiplicities from proton-proton collisions at various center of mass energies are used to fix the micro-canonical parameters (E) and (V). The dependences of the micro-canonical parameters on the collision energy are parameterised for the further study of pp reactions with this micro-canonical treatment.
In this thesis the anti-proton to proton ratio in 197Au + 197Au collisions, measured at mid-rapidity, at a center of mass energy of psNN = 200GeV is reported. The value was measured to be ¹p/p = 0.81+-0.002stat +- 0.05syst: in the 5% most central collisions. The ratio shows no dependence on rapidity in the range jyj < 0:5. Furthermore, a dependence on transverse momentum within 0:4< p? < 1:0 GeV/c is not observed. At higher p?, a slight drop in the ratio is observed. In the present analysis, the highest momentum considered is p? = 4:5 GeV/c yielding ¹p=p = 0:645§0:005stat: §0:10syst:. However, the systematic error is higher in this momentum range. A slight centrality dependence was observed, where a decrease from ¹p=p = 0:83§0:002stat:§0:05syst: for most peripheral collisions (less than 80% central) to ¹p=p = 0:78§0:002stat:§0:05syst: for the 5% most central collisions was measured. An estimate of the feed-down contributions fromthe decay of heavier strange baryons results in ¹p=p = 0:77 § 0:05syst:. The measured ratio indicates a » 12:5 times higher value compared to the highest SPS energy of psNN = 17:3 and an \almost net-baryon free" region, at mid- rapidity. The asymmetry of protons and anti-protons may be explained by the contribution ofvalence quarks in a nucleus break-up picture. In such a scenario, the absolute value of the ratio and the fact that the ratio does not depend on rapidity (at mid-rapidity) is well reproduced. Fragmentation of quarks and anti- quarks into protons and anti-protons is assumed. An estimate of the ratio, when feed-down correction is taken into consideration, agrees well with the prediction of a statistical model analysis at a temperature of T = 177 § 7 MeV and a baryon chemical potential of ¹B = 29 § 8 MeV. The temperature achieved is only slightly higher when compared to the top SPS energy, while the baryochemical potential is factor »10 lower. As in the case of the SPS results, these parameters are close to the phase boundary of Figure 1.6. The measurement of the ratio at high transverse momentum was of special in- terest in this analysis, since at RHIC energies, the cross section for hadrons at high transverse momentum is increased with respect to SPS energies. The weak dependence of the ratio on the transverse momentum is well described by the non- perturbative quenched and baryon junction scenario (i.e. Soft+Quench model), where baryon creation is enhanced by baryon junctions. In comparison the ratio does not decrease within the considered momentum range as predicted by pQCD.
This thesis presented the measurement of antideuteron and antihelium-3 production in central AuAu collisions at V SNN = 200 GeV center-of-mass energy at RHIC. The analysis is based on STAR data, about 3 x 10 high 6 events at top 10% centrality. Within the data sample a total number of about 5000 antideuterons and 193 antihelium-3 were observed in the STARTPC at mid-rapidity. The specific energy loss measurement in the TPC provides antideuteron identification only in a small momentum window, antihelium-3 however can be identified nearly background free with almost complete momentum range coverage. Following the statistical analysis of the hadronic composition at chemical freeze-out of the fireball, the antinuclei abundances were analyzed in terms of the same statistical description. Now applied to the clusterization of the fireball, the statistical analysis yields a fireball temperature of (135+-10) MeV and chemical potential of (5+-10) MeV at kinetic freeze-out. In the same way as the hadronization, the clusterization process is phase-space dominated and clusters are born into a state of maximum entropy. The large sample of observed antihelium-3 allowed for the first time in heavy-ion physics to calculate a differential multiplicity and invariant cross section as a function of transverse momentum. As expected, the collective transverse flow in the fireball flattens the shape of the transverse momentum spectrum and leads to the high inverse slope parameter of (950+-140) MeV of the antihelium-3 spectrum. With the extracted mean transverse momentum of antihelium-3, the collective flow velocity in transverse direction could be estimated. As the average thermal velocity is small compared to the mean collective flow velocity for heavy particles, the mean transverse momentum of antihelium-3 by itself constrains the flow velocity. Here, a simple ideal-gas approximation was fitted to the distribution of the mean transverse momentum as a function of particle mass and provided direct access to the kinetic freeze-out temperature and the flow velocity. A concept, which is complementary to the combined analysis of momentum spectra and two-particle HBT correlation methods commonly used to extract these parameters, and a cross check for the statistical analysis. The upper limit for the transverse collective flow velocity from the antihelium-3 measurement alone is v flow <= (0.68+-0.06)c, whereas the ideal-gas approximation yields a temperature of (130+-40) MeV and v flow = (0.46+-0.08)c. The results indicate, that the kinetic freeze-out conditions at SPS and RHIC are very similar, except for a smaller baryon chemical potential at RHIC. The simultaneous inclusive measurement of antiprotons allowed to study the cluster production in terms of the coalescence picture. With the large momentum coverage of the antihelium-3 momentum spectrum, the coalescence parameter could be calculated as a function of transverse momentum. Due to the difference between antiproton and antihelium-3 inverse slopes, increases with increasing transverse momentum - again a direct consequence of collective transverse flow. Both B2 and B3 follow the common behavior of decreasing coalescence parameters as a function of collision energy. According to the simple thermodynamic coalescence model, this indicates an increasing freeze-out volume for higher energies and is confirmed by the interpretation of the coalescence parameters in the framework of Scheibl and Heinz. Their model includes a dynamically expanding source in a quantum mechanical description of the coalescence process and expresses the coalescence parameter as a function of the homogeneity volume V hom accessible also in two-particle HBT correlation analyzes. The values for the antideuteron and antihelium-3 results agree well with the homogeneity volume from pion-pion correlations, but do not seem to follow the same transverse mass dependence. A comparison with proton-proton correlations may clarify this point and provide an important cross check for this analysis. Compared to SPS the homogeneity volume increases nearly by a factor of two. The analysis of the antinuclei emission at RHIC allowed to study the kinetic freeze-out of the created fireball. The results show, that the temperature and mean transverse velocity in the expanding system does not change significantly, when the collision energy increases by one order of magnitude. Only the source volume, i.e. the homogeneity volume, increases. That leaves open questions for the theoreticians to the details of the system evolution from the initial hot and dense phase - the initial energy density is a factor of two to three higher at RHIC than at SPS - to the final kinetic freeze-out with similar conditions. At the same time, the results are important constraints for the theoretical descriptions. The successful implementation of the Level-3 trigger system in STAR opens the door for the measurement of very rare signals. Indeed, in the coalescence physics perspective, the first observations of anti-alpha 4 He nuclei and antihypertritons 3/Delta H will come within the reach of STAR, in addition to a high statistics sample of antihelium-3.
Aufbau eines Experimentes zur Untersuchung der Ionenstrahlkühlung mit Hilfe eines HF-Quadrupols
(2003)
Die Arbeit beschreibt ein Experiment zur Kühlung eines 40Ar-Ionenstrahls mittels eines 4He-Hintergrundgases innerhalb eines unmodulierten RF-Quadrupols von 500 mm Länge. Ziel des Experimentes war es, den Einfluss der Gaskühlung auf die Qualität von Ionenstrahlen geringer Energie und Intensität zu untersuchen. Die Ionen wurden bei unterschiedlichen Spannungen aus einem Duoplasmatron extrahiert und vor der Injektion in den Quadrupol durch ein elektrostatisches Linsensystem formiert. Die Stromstärke der Strahles wurde mittels einer Faradaytasse gemessen, die mit einer Sekundärelektronen unterdrückenden Repellerblende ausgestattet ist. Der Einfluß der variierten Parameter Hintergrundgasdruck, Quadrupolfrequenz und Strahlenergie auf die Qualität des Strahls wurde dabei nicht direkt über dessen, die Phasenraumverteilung beschreibende, Emittanz gemessen, sondern über die Veränderung der registrierten Strahlstromstärken an einer Blende konstanter Apertur, also der Brillanz abgeleitet. Vorbereitend wurden zunächst Duoplasmatron und Injektionssystem überholt, aufgebaut und mit der nötigen Energie- und Kühlversorgung ausgerüstet. Im anschließenden Testlauf mit ungekühlten Heliumionen wurden die einzustellenden Werte der Betriebsparameter Quellendruck und diverse Blendenspannungen ermittelt und das System auf seine der Reproduktion dienenden Stabilität geprüft. Dabei wurden im Dauerbetrieb Strahlstromstärken von 0,29 mA bei 1 keV/u und 0,02 mA bei 0,15 keV/u Strahlenergie erzielt. Mittels der bekannten Emittanz des Helium-Strahls bei 1 keV/u Energie und 0,25 mA Strahlstromstärke wurde die jeweilige normierte Emittanz der noch ungekühlten Strahlen auf 2,18*10-2 im ersten und 1,61*10-2 im zweiten Fall abgeschätzt. Zur Gaskühlung wurde ein Quadrupol mit 10 mm Apertur- und 7,5 mm Elektrodenradius gefertigt und mit einem Phasentrenner gekoppelt. Ein Breitbandgenerator und -Verstärker dienten der frequenz- und spannungsvariablen Elektrodenbelegung. Der Hintergrundgasdruck wurde mittels einem handelsüblichen Regelventil variiert. Um der ein großes Masseverhältnis von Strahlionen zu Hintergrundgas fordernden Theorie Rechnung zu tragen, wurden Argon als Ionen und Helium als Buffergas gewählt. Einer eingehenden Untersuchung der Auswirkung der einzelnen Komponenten und ihrer Kombination auf die Eigenschaften des Ionenstrahls folgte eine schrittweise Variation von Quadrupolfrequenz und Hintergrundgasdruck im Bereich 1-5 MHz und 9*10-6 - 4*10-3 mbar bei den Strahlenergien 15, 25 und 80 eV/u. Die hierbei gemessenen Strahlstromstärken wurden über die frequenzabhängige Elektrodenspannung normiert und mit der Stärke der ungekühlten Strahlen verglichen. Bei 15 eV/u Strahlenergie konnte die gemessene Maximalstromstärke um 43 % von 0,014 µA/V ungekühlt auf 0,02 µA/V bei 1*10-4 mbar Hintergrundgasdruck gesteigert werden. Die Strahlstromstärke des Strahles mit 25 eV/u Energie wurde von 0,045µA/V des ungekühlten auf 0,1 µA/V bei ca. 6*10-5 mbar verdoppelt. Bei 80 eV/u Energie blieb die Strahlstromstärke mit 0,35 µA/V unverändert, jedoch wurde im gesamten Bereich zwischen 2*10-5 und 3*10-5 mbar und 3,4 - 4,6 MHz mit annähernd konstanten 0,28 µA/V ein Plateau hoher Strahlstromstärke registriert, dem etwa 0,06 µA/V im ungekühlten Strahl entgegenstehen. Ein weniger stark ausgeprägtes Analogon wurde bei 15 eV/u im Frequenzbereich um 3,5 MHz beobachtet. In zwei von drei Fällen konnte im Experiment die Strahlstromstärke durch die Gaskühlung deutlich gesteigert werden, im dritten Fall wurde die Zahl der transportierten Ionen in einem zuvor ungeeigneten Frequenzbereich um den Faktor 4,5 gesteigert. Durch die Beziehung zwischen Strahlstromstärke I, Strahlbrillanz B und Strahlemittanz ε mit I~B~1/ε2 kann abschließend eine Verminderung der Strahlemittanz durch die Gaskühlung festgestellt werden. Die durchgeführten Experimente haben gezeigt, daß man bei niedrigen Strahlenergien einfach geladene Ionen bei relativ hohem Gasdruck und geeigneten Parametern des Quadrupols transportieren und die Emittanz des Strahls verbessern kann. Die Kombination von Quadrupol und Buffergas stellt also ein System dar, das als Gaskühler bei kleinen Strömen von Niedrigenergiestrahlen eingesetzt werden kann. Als nächstes würde zur weitergehenden, jedoch den Rahmen dieser Arbeit übersteigenden Untersuchung ein technisch und finanziell aufwändigerer Aufbau benötigt. Das benutzte Linsensystem würde durch ein auf die Ionensorte speziell abgestimmtes Injektionssystem und die Faradaytasse durch eine rechnergesteuerte, orts- und winkelauflösende Emittanzmessanlage ersetzt. Die somit erhaltene höhere Auflösung des Strahles würde den Übergang von der vorliegenden qualitativen Beschreibung der Gaskühlung zu einer quantitativen ermöglichen.
Azimuthal anisotropy (v2) and two-particle angular correlations of high pT charged hadrons have been measured in Au+Au collisions at sqrt[sNN]=130 GeV for transverse momenta up to 6 GeV/c, where hard processes are expected to contribute significantly. The two-particle angular correlations exhibit elliptic flow and a structure suggestive of fragmentation of high pT partons. The monotonic rise of v2(pT) for pT<2 GeV/c is consistent with collective hydrodynamical flow calculations. At pT>3 GeV/c, a saturation of v2 is observed which persists up to pT=6 GeV/c.
Recent calculations applying statistical mechanics indicate that in a setting with compactified large extra dimensions a black hole might evolve into a (quasi-)stable state with mass close to the new fundamental scale Mf. Black holes and therefore their relics might be produced at the LHC in the case of extra-dimensional topologies. In this energy regime, Hawking's evaporation scenario is modified due to energy conservation and quantum effects. We reanalyse the evaporation of small black holes including the quantisation of the emitted radiation due to the finite surface of the black hole. It is found that observable stable black hole relics with masses ∼1–3Mf would form which could be identified by a delayed single jet with a corresponding hard momentum kick to the relic and by ionisation, e.g., in a TPC.
Recent calculations applying statistical mechanics indicate that in a setting with compactified large extra dimensions a black hole might evolve into a (quasi-)stable state with mass close to the new fundamental scale M f. Black holes and therefore their relics might be produced at the LHC in the case of extra-dimensional topologies. In this energy regime, Hawking's evaporation scenario is modified due to energy conservation and quantum effects. We reanalyse the evaporation of small black holes including the quantisation of the emitted radiation due to the finite surface of the black hole. It is found that observable stable black hole relics with masses sim 1-3 M f would form which could be identified by a delayed single jet with a corresponding hard momentum kick to the relic and by ionisation, e.g. in a TPC.
We study properties of compact stars with the deconfinement phase transition in their interiors. The equation of state of cold baryon-rich matter is constructed by combining a relativistic mean-field model for the hadronic phase and the MIT Bag model for the deconfined phase. In a narrow parameter range two sequences of compact stars (twin stars), which differ by the size of the quark core, have been found. We demonstrate the possibility of a rapid transition between the twin stars with the energy release of about 1052 ergs. This transition should be accompanied by the prompt neutrino burst and the delayed gamma-ray burst.